Specific Phospholipase A2 Inhibitor Research Articles

Dorsal switch protein 1 as a damage signal in insect gut immunity to activate dual oxidase via an eicosanoid, PGE2.

Various microbiota including beneficial symbionts reside in the insect gut. Infections of pathogens cause dysregulation of the microflora and threaten insect survival. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been used in the gut immune responses, in which its production is tightly regulated by controlling dual oxidase (Duox) activity via Ca2+ signal to protect beneficial microflora and gut epithelium due to its high cytotoxicity. However, it was not clear how the insects discriminate the pathogens from the various microbes in the gut lumen to trigger ROS production. An entomopathogenic nematode (Steinernema feltiae) infection elevated ROS level in the gut lumen of a lepidopteran insect, Spodoptera exigua. Dorsal switch protein 1 (DSP1) localized in the nucleus in the midgut epithelium was released into plasma upon the nematode infection and activated phospholipase A2 (PLA2). The activated PLA2 led to an increase of PGE2 level in the midgut epithelium, in which rising Ca2+ signal up-regulated ROS production. Inhibiting DSP1 release by its specific RNA interference (RNAi) or specific inhibitor, 3-ethoxy-4-methoxyphenol, treatment failed to increase the intracellular Ca2+ level and subsequently prevented ROS production upon the nematode infection. A specific PLA2 inhibitor treatment also prevented the up-regulation of Ca2+ and subsequent ROS production upon the nematode infection. However, the addition of PGE2 to the inhibitor treatment rescued the gut immunity. DSP1 release was not observed at infection with non-pathogenic pathogens but detected in plasma with pathogenic infections that would lead to damage to the gut epithelium. These results indicate that DSP1 acts as a damage-associated molecular pattern in gut immunity through DSP1/PLA2/Ca2+/Duox.

Porcine Picornavirus 3C Protease Degrades PRDX6 to Impair PRDX6-mediated Antiviral Function.

Peroxiredoxin-6 (PRDX6) is an antioxidant enzyme with both the activities of peroxidase and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), which is involved in regulation of many cellular reactions. However, the function of PRDX6 during virus infection remains unknown. In this study, we found that the abundance of PRDX6 protein was dramatically decreased in foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infected cells. Overexpression of PRDX6 inhibited FMDV replication. In contrast, knockdown of PRDX6 expression promoted FMDV replication, suggesting an antiviral role of PRDX6. To explore whether the activity of peroxidase and PLA2 was associated with PRDX6-mediated antiviral function, a specific inhibitor of PLA2 (MJ33) and a specific inhibitor of peroxidase activity (mercaptosuccinate) were used to treat the cells before FMDV infection. The results showed that incubation of MJ33 but not mercaptosuccinate promoted FMDV replication. Meanwhile, overexpression of PRDX6 slightly enhanced type I interferon signaling. We further determined that the viral 3Cpro was responsible for degradation of PRDX6, and 3Cpro-induced reduction of PRDX6 was independent of the proteasome, lysosome, and caspase pathways. The protease activity of 3Cpro was required for induction of PRDX6 reduction. Besides, PRDX6 suppressed the replication of another porcine picornavirus Senecavirus A (SVA), and the 3Cpro of SVA induced the reduction of PRDX6 through its proteolytic activity as well. Together, our results suggested that PRDX6 plays an important antiviral role during porcine picornavirus infection, and the viral 3Cpro induces the degradation of PRDX6 to overcome PRDX6-mediated antiviral function.Electronic Supplementary MaterialThe online version of this article (10.1007/s12250-021-00352-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Host Immunosuppression Induced by Steinernema feltiae, an Entomopathogenic Nematode, through Inhibition of Eicosanoid Biosynthesis.

Steinernema feltiae K1 (Filipjev) (Nematode: Steinernematidae), an entomopathogenic nematode, was isolated and identified based on its morphological and molecular diagnostic characteristics. Its infective juveniles (IJs) were highly pathogenic to three lepidopteran (LC50 = 23.7–25.0 IJs/larva) and one coleopteran (LC50 = 39.3 IJs/larva) insect species. Infected larvae of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Insecta: Lepidoptera), exhibited significant reduction in phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity in their plasma. The decrease of PLA2 activity was followed by significant septicemia of the larvae infected with S. feltiae. Insecticidal activity induced by S. feltiae was explained by significant immunosuppression in cellular immune responses measured by hemocyte nodule formation and total hemocyte count (THC). Although S. feltiae infection suppressed nodule formation and THC in the larvae, an addition of arachidonic acid (AA, a catalytic product of PLA2) rescued these larvae from fatal immunosuppression. In contrast, an addition of dexamethasone (a specific PLA2 inhibitor) enhanced the nematode’s pathogenicity in a dose-dependent manner. To discriminate the immunosuppressive activity of a symbiotic bacterium (Xenorhabdus bovienii (Proteobacteria: Enterobacterales)) from the nematode, kanamycin was applied to after nematode infection. It significantly inhibited the bacterial growth in the hemolymph. Compared to nematode treatment alone, the addition of antibiotics to nematode infection partially rescued the immunosuppression measured by phenol oxidase activity. Consequently, treatment with antibiotics significantly rescued the larvae from the insecticidal activity of S. feltiae. These results suggest that immunosuppression induced by infection of S. feltiae depends on its symbiotic bacteria by inhibiting eicosanoid biosynthesis, resulting in significant insect mortality. However, the addition of antibiotics or AA could not completely rescue the virulence of the nematode, suggesting that the nematode itself also plays a role in its insecticidal activity.

Toll recognition signal activates oenocytoid cell lysis via a crosstalk between plasmatocyte-spreading peptide and eicosanoids in response to a fungal infection

Plasmatocyte-spreading peptide (PSP) activates hemocyte-spreading behavior in response to various microbial pathogens. Its homolog, growth-blocking peptide, has several functions that activate immune cells and induce oenocytoid cell lysis (OCL). OCL is required for release of prophenoloxidase from oenocytoids in the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua. Injection of PSP to S. exigua larvae significantly induced in vivo OCL and resulted in significant increase of phenoloxidase (PO) activity. A fungal infection induced PSP expression and also significantly increased OCL. RNA interference (RNAi) of PSP expression significantly suppressed OCL induction and subsequently inhibited PO activation. Interestingly, an addition of dexamethasone (a specific phospholipase A2 inhibitor) inhibited the PSP activity to induce OCL. Toll signal pathway was associated with PSP action on inducing OCL because RNAi of Toll expression suppressed PSP expression and subsequent OCL induction. However, an addition of PSP to the larvae under RNAi of Toll expression rescued the progress of OCL.

Urocortin protects cardiac myocytes from ischemia/reperfusion injury by attenuating calcium-insensitive phospholipase A2 gene expression.

We have used Affymetrix gene chip technology to look for changes in gene expression caused by a 24 h exposure of rat primary neonatal cardiac myocytes to the cardioprotective agent urocortin. We observed a 2.5-fold down-regulation at both the mRNA and protein levels of a specific calcium-insensitive phospholipase A2 enzyme. Levels of lysophosphatidylcholine, a toxic metabolite of phospholipase A2, were lowered by 30% in myocytes treated with urocortin for 24 h and by 50% with the irreversible iPLA2 inhibitor bromoenol lactone compared with controls. Both 4 h ischemia and ischemia followed by 24 h reperfusion caused a significant increase in lysophosphatidylcholine concentration compared with controls. When these myocytes were pretreated with urocortin, the ischemia-induced increase in lysophosphatidylcholine concentration was significantly lowered. Moreover, co-incubation of cardiac myocytes with urocortin, or the specific phospholipase A2 inhibitor bromoenol lactone, reduces the cytotoxicity produced by lysophosphatidylcholine or ischemia/reperfusion. Similarly, in the intact heart ex vivo we found that cardiac damage measured by infarct size was significantly increased when lysophoshatidylcholine was applied during ischemia, compared with ischemia alone, and that pre-treatment with both urocortin and bromoenol lactone reversed the increase in infarct size. This, to our knowledge, is the first study linking the cardioprotective effect of urocortin to a decrease in a specific enzyme protein and a subsequent decrease in the concentration of its cardiotoxic metabolite.

Interaction of the neurotoxic and nontoxic secretory phospholipases A2 with the crotoxin inhibitor from Crotalus serum.

Crotalus durissus terrificus snakes possess a protein in their blood, named crotoxin inhibitor from Crotalus serum (CICS), which protects them against crotoxin, the main toxin of their venom. CICS neutralizes the lethal potency of crotoxin and inhibits its phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity. The aim of the present study is to investigate the specificity of CICS towards snake venom neurotoxic PLA2s (beta-neurotoxins) and nontoxic mammalian PLA2s. This investigation shows that CICS does not affect the enzymatic activity of pancreatic and nonpancreatic PLA2s, bee venom PLA2 and Elapidae beta-neurotoxins but strongly inhibits the PLA2 activity of Viperidae beta-neurotoxins. Surface plasmon resonance and PAGE studies further demonstrated that CICS makes complexes with monomeric and multimeric Viperidae beta-neurotoxins but does not interact with nontoxic PLA2s. In the case of dimeric beta-neurotoxins from Viperidae venoms (crotoxin, Mojave toxin and CbICbII), which are made by the noncovalent association of a PLA2 with a nonenzymatic subunit, CICS does not react with the noncatalytic subunit, instead it binds tightly to the PLA2 subunit and induces the dissociation of the heterocomplex. In vitro assays performed with Torpedo synaptosomes showed a protective action of CICS against Viperidae beta-neurotoxins but not against other PLA2 neurotoxins, on primary and evoked liberation of acetylcholine. In conclusion, CICS is a specific PLA2 inhibitor of the beta-neurotoxins from the Viperidae family.

Intracellular calcium mobilization and phospholipid degradation in sphingosylphosphorylcholine-stimulated human airway epithelial cells.

Extracellular sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) caused a remarkable elevation in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in immortalized human airway epithelial cells (CFNP9o-). An increase in total inositol phosphates formation was determined; however, the dose responses for [Ca2+]i elevation and inositol phosphates production were slightly different and, furthermore, PMA and pertussis toxin almost completely inhibited [Ca2+]i mobilization by SPC, whereas inositol phosphates production was only partially reduced. The possible direct interaction of SPC with Ca2+ channels of intracellular stores was determined by experiments with permeabilized cells, where SPC failed to evoke Ca2+ release, whereas lysophosphatidic acid was shown to be effective. The level of phosphatidic acid was increased by SPC only in the presence of AACOCF3, a specific inhibitor of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and blocked by both pertussis toxin and R59022, an inhibitor of diacylglycerol kinase. R59022 enhanced diacylglycerol production by SPC and also significantly reduced [Ca2+]i mobilization. Only polyunsaturated diacylglycerol and phosphatidic acid were generated by SPC. Lastly, SPC caused stimulation of arachidonic acid release, indicating the involvement of PLA2. Taken together, these data suggest that, after SPC stimulation, phospholipase C-derived diacylglycerol is phosphorylated by a diacylglycerol kinase to phosphatidic acid, which is further hydrolysed by PLA2 activity to arachidonic and lysophosphatidic acids. We propose that lysophosphatidic acid might be the intracellular messenger able to release Ca2+ from internal stores.

Exogenous C2-ceramide activates c-fos serum response element via Rac-dependent signalling pathway.

Ceramide is an important regulatory molecule implicated in a variety of biological processes in response to stress and cytokines. To understand the signal transduction pathway of ceramide to the nucleus, in the present study, we examined whether C2-ceramide, a cell permeable ceramide, activates c-fos serum response element (SRE). Treatment of Rat-2 fibroblast cells with C2-ceramide caused the stimulation of c-fos SRE-dependent reporter gene activity in a dose- and time-dependent manner by transient transfection analysis. Next, we examined the role of Rho family GTPases in the ceramide-induced signalling to SRE activation. By reporter gene analysis following transient transfections with various plasmids expressing a dominant negative mutant form of Cdc42, Rac1 or RhoA, C2-ceramide-induced SRE activation was shown to be selectively repressed by pEXV-RacN17 encoding a dominant negative mutant of Rac1, suggesting that Rac activity is essential for the signalling cascade of ceramide to the nucleus. In a further study to analyse the downstream mediator of Rac in the ceramide-signalling pathway, we observed that either pretreatment with mepacrine, a potent and specific inhibitor of phospholipase A2, or co-transfection with antisense cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) oligonucleotide repressed the C2-ceramide-induced SRE activation selectively, implying a critical role of cPLA2 in C2-ceramide-induced signalling to nucleus. Consistent with these results, the translocation of cPLA2 protein as well as the release of arachidonic acid, a principal product of phospholipase A2, was rapidly induced by the addition of C2-ceramide in a Rac-dependent manner. Together, our findings suggest the critical role of 'Rac and subsequent activation of phospholipase A2' in ceramide-signalling to nucleus.

Nuclear signalling by rac GTPase: essential role of phospholipase A2.

Rac, one member of Rho family GTPases, stimulates c-fos serum response element (SRE)-luciferase reporter gene in Rat-2 fibroblast cells. By transient transfection analysis, we demonstrated that the activation of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and the subsequent production of arachidonic acid (AA) are essential for Rac-induced c-fos SRE activation, implying a critical role for PLA2 in the Rac-signalling pathway to the nucleus. Either pretreatment with mepacrine, a specific inhibitor of PLA2, or co-transfection with the expression plasmid of lipocortin-1, a proposed inhibitory protein of PLA2, selectively abolished RacV12-induced SRE activation. Further, we demonstrated that subsequent metabolism of AA, a major product of Rac-activated PLA2, by lipoxygenase (LO) is essential for Rac-induced c-fos SRE activation. In agreement with the role of the PLA2-AA-LO cascade as a potential mediator of Rac signalling to the nucleus, the addition of exogenous AA stimulated c-fos SRE-luciferase activity in an LO-dependent manner. Together, our results demonstrate that 'Rac-activated PLA2 and subsequent AA metabolism by LO' constitute a novel and specific pathway in Rac GTPase-induced c-fos SRE activation.

Regulation of the release of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)alpha and soluble TNF receptor by gamma irradiation and interferon gamma in Ewing's sarcoma/peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumour cells.

This study analyses the production of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)alpha and soluble TNF receptor (sTNF-R) before and after exposure to gamma irradiation and interferon gamma (IFN gamma) in 12 cell lines derived from Ewing's sarcoma (ES)/peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumours (pPNET). Supernatants from ES/pPNET cell cultures were tested in a TNF alpha-specific amplified enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), a bioassay, and sTNF-Rp55 and sTNF-Rp75 ELISA. The tumour cell lines released minimal amounts of TNF alpha, prominent amounts of sTNF-Rp55 (7/12 cell lines) and no sTNF-Rp75. Exposure to gamma irradiation (5 Gy) either induced (3/12) cell lines) or up-regulated (3/12 cell lines) TNF alpha release without changing sTNF-Rp55 and sTNF-Rp75 levels. Priming of cultures with recombinant human IFN gamma (rhIFN gamma) markedly enhanced TNF alpha secretion in the radiation-responsive cell lines and had no influence on sTNF-Rp55 and sTNF-Rp75 levels. rhIFN gamma affected the magnitude rather than the sensitivity of the radiation response. The TNF alpha secreted was bioactive, as shown by its cytotoxic effect of WEHI-164 cells, and neutralization of its activity by anti-TNF alpha monoclonal antibody. Herbimycin A (a tyrosine-specific protein kinase inhibitor) but not calphostin C (a protein kinase C inhibitor), H89 (a protein kinase A inhibitor), AA-COCF3 (a specific inhibitor of phospholipase A2) and MK-886 (a specific inhibitor of 5-lipoxygenase) abrogated gamma-irradiation-stimulated TNF alpha release. The antioxidants N-acetylcysteine, nordihydroguaiaretic acid and mepacrine dose-dependently inhibited gamma-irradiation-mediated TNF alpha production. Collectively our findings indicate that IFN gamma priming potentiates the secretion of bioactive TNF alpha by ES/pPNET cells in response to gamma irradiation without affecting sTNF-R release. The data suggest a requirement for protein tyrosine kinase activity and a role for reactive oxygen species in the gamma-irradiation-mediated intracellular signalling pathway leading to TNF alpha production.

Involvement of phospholipase A2 and arachidonic acid in cholecystokinin-8-induced insulin secretion in rat islets

Cholecystokinin (CCK) has been shown to stimulate insulin secretion through an effect which involves mediation by phospholipase C (PLC) and protein kinase C (PKC). However, data exist suggesting involvement also of other transduction pathways. We investigated possible involvement of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and arachidonic acid (AA) in mechanisms of insulin secretion, induced by the C-terminal octapeptide of CCK (CCK-8) in isolated rat islets. At 5.6 mM glucose, the specific PLA2 inhibitor p-amylcinnamoylantranilic acid (ACA; 50 μM) diminished CCK-8 (100 nM)-stimulated insulin secretion (by 57 ± 16%; P = 0.001). Furthermore, at 5.6 mM glucose, CCK-8 significantly increased the efflux of [3H]arachidonic acid from prelabelled islets (by 130 ± 25%; P < 0.001). These results imply that CCK-8 activates PLA2 to form AA in islets. To study whether the insulinotropic effect of CCK-8 is due to AA per se or to its metabolites, the oxidative pathways of the AA metabolism were inhibited. However, the cyclooxygenase inhibitors, indomethacin (30 μM) and salicylate (1.25 mM) as well as the lipoxygenase inhibitors baicalein (1–100 μM) and esculetin (0.5–50 μM), did not affect CCK-8-induced insulin secretion. We conclude that CCK-8-induced insulin secretion is partially mediated by a pathway involving PLA2, and that the formed AA, rather than its metabolites, is of importance.

Mechanism of inhibition of human nonpancreatic secreted phospholipase A2 by the anti-inflammatory agent BMS-181162.

Many important mediators of inflammation result from the liberation of free arachidonic acid from phospholipid pools which is thought to result from the action of phospholipase A2 (PLA2). It is believed, therefore, that the inhibition of PLA2 would be an important treatment in many inflammatory disease states. The anti-inflammatory agent BMS-181162 (4-(3'-carboxyphenyl)-3,7-dimethyl-9-(2",6",6"-trimethyl-1"-cyclohexenyl )-2Z,4E , 6E,8E-nonatetraenoic acid) selectively inhibits PLA2 and has been shown to block arachidonic acid release in whole cells. The mechanism of inhibition of human non-pancreatic-secreted PLA2 by BMS-181162 is investigated in this paper. A scooting mode assay in which the enzyme is irreversibly bound to vesicles of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphomethanol containing 5 mol % of 1-palmitoyl-2-[1-14C]arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, was used to characterize the inhibition. With this assay system, BMS-181162 inhibited the enzyme in a dose-dependent manner. Compounds which inhibit in the scooting mode have been shown to be competitive inhibitors in the interface (Gelb, M. H., Berg, O., and Jain, M. K. (1991) Curr. Op. Struct. Biol. 1, 836-843). This was verified by demonstrating that the inhibition was not due to the desorption of the enzyme from the lipid-water interface. Additionally, the compound did not measurably affect the rate of association onto the vesicles. Therefore, the inhibition was not the result of a modulation of the bilayer morphology nor an interaction with the interfacial binding site on the enzyme. The degree of inhibition was dependent on the reaction volume which indicates that the inhibitor is only partially partitioned into the bilayer. After compensating for this partitioning, the dose-dependent inhibition could be defined by kinetic equations describing competitive inhibition at the interface. The equilibrium dissociation constant for the inhibitor bound to the enzyme at the interface (KI*) was determined to be 0.013 mol fraction, thus demonstrating that BMS-181162 represents a novel structural class of tight-binding competitive inhibitors of human nonpancreatic secreted PLA2. Using Escherichia coli membranes as substrate, to which the enzyme binds to the interface reversibly, the inhibition showed a nonclassical kinetic pattern which is also consistent with a partial partitioning of the inhibitor into the bilayer. This was verified by a direct measurement of the amount of inhibitor remaining in solution. The implications for in vivo efficacy which result from this mechanism are discussed.

Angiogenin stimulates endothelial cell prostacyclin secretion by activation of phospholipase A2.

Angiogenin stimulates capillary and umbilical vein endothelial cell prostacyclin secretion but not that of prostaglandins of the E series. The response was quantitated by radioimmunoassay and by [3H]arachidonate labeling followed by analysis of the secreted prostaglandins. The stimulated secretion lasts for several minutes and is optimal at 2-4 min. The dose-response (peak at 1-10 ng/ml) is similar to that previously observed for activation of endothelial cell phospholipase C. Stimulated secretion was blocked by pretreatment with the inhibitors of prostacyclin synthesis, indomethacin and tranylcypromine, and also the specific inhibitor of phospholipase A2, quinacrine, as well as pertussis toxin and the diglyceryl and monoglyceryl lipase inhibitor RHC 80267. Stimulated secretion was also abolished in cells that were either pretreated for 48 hr with phorbol ester to down-regulate protein kinase C or incubated with the protein kinase inhibitor H7. Hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol by phospholipase A2 appears to be the source of angiogenin-mobilized arachidonate; angiogenin-induced hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine was not detected. Activation of phospholipase A2 occurs in the absence of an angiogenin-induced calcium flux. The results are discussed in terms of mechanisms of agonist-induced intracellular arachidonate mobilization and relevance to angiogenesis.

Identification of distinct activation pathways of the human neutrophil NADPH-oxidase.

The stimulation of the human neutrophil NADPH-oxidase is initiated by a variety of agonists, which appear to utilize more than one activation pathway. We have discerned that opsonized zymosan (OZ) stimulates O2- release by a mechanism distinct from that of phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). PMA differs from OZ stimulation in its susceptibility to H-7 (a protein kinase inhibitor) inhibition of O2- release and the lack of PMA-initiated release of radiolabeled arachidonic acid ([3H]AA) from prelabeled cells. That AA release was linked to O2- generation in OZ-stimulated cells was suggested by the finding that mepacrine, a phospholipase inhibitor, exhibits parallel dose response inhibition for both O2- generation and [3H]AA release, whereas mepacrine did not significantly inhibit the O2- generation induced by PMA. The specific involvement of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) in the release of AA was indicated by the lack of release of [3H]oleate, which is not released by PLA2 in intact cells; [3H]AA released from phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylcholine and not accompanied by the formation of [3H]-arachidonyl phosphatidic acid, thus eliminating the involvement of phospholipase C; and the inhibition of [3H]AA release by p-bromophenacyl bromide, a specific PLA2 inhibitor. The reduction of O2- formation by inhibitors of AA metabolism (BW755C, acetylsalicylic acid, and indomethacin) further supports a linkage between AA release and O2- generation. That [3H]AA release, like O2- generation, in OZ-stimulated cells was calcium dependent further differentiates OZ from calcium-independent PMA activation. These studies in toto suggest that OZ stimulation of the NADPH-oxidase differs from PMA, in that the particulate stimulus is PLA2 mediated and independent of protein kinase C.

1832 THE EFFECTS OF INHALATIONAL ANESTHETICS AND QUINACRINE ON ARACHIDONIC ACID-INDUCED PULMONARY VASOCONSTRICTION

Using the isolated perfused rabbit lung, we have shown that anesthetic agents augment pulmonary vasoconstriction (dPpa) in response to t-butyl-hydroperoxide by generating thromboxane A2 (TxA2). Quinacrine (Q) has been described as an inhibitor of phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Arachidonic acid (AA) also causes dPpa and bypasses the PLA2-mediated step in eicosanoid metabolism. AA-stimulated pressor response should not be augmented in the presence of anesthetic agents and should not be inhibited by Q. We tested these hypotheses in 5 isolated rabbit lungs perfused in a non-recirculating manner with Krebs-Henseleit (KH) solution. AA, 10-20 ug, was delivered into the inflow tubing over 1 min. The lungs were then ventilated with 2 MAC cyclopropane (C3H6) for 10 min and rechallenged with AA. Perfusion was begun with Q at 0.1mM (pH adjusted to 7.35-7.45) and a third AA challenge was delivered. C3H6 was discontinued, the lungs ventilated with air, and then given a fourth dose of AA. For air+AA, dPpa=20.8±10.9 (mean±SD); for C3H6+AA, dPpa= 30.5±17.8; for air+Q+AA, dPpa=2.3±2.4; for C3H6+Q+AA, dPpa=30.5±5.2 torr. By 1-way ANOVA the effects of C3H6 and Q were significant (P<0.001). By the Newmann-Keuls test, C3H6 did not have a significant effect on dPpa after AA, but Q inhibited the response to AA with and without C3H6 (P<0.05). Thus Q is not a specific PLA2 inhibitor in our model.