Specific Absorption Rate Ratio Research Articles

Preparation of stable colloidal dispersion of surface modified Fe3O4 nanoparticles for magnetic heating applications

The effect of surface modification on enhancing the magnetic heating behavior of magnetic nano fluids were investigated, for this purpose Fe3O4 nanoparticles were synthesized using co-precipitation method and surface modification was done using citric acid, ascorbic acid, tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). Experimental heating tests using AC magnetic field were done in the frequency of 100 kHz and different magnetic field (H) intensities. Theoretically the specific absorption rate (SAR) in magnetic nano fluids is independent of nanoparticles concentration but the experimental results showed different behavior. The theoretical SAR value @ H = 12kA.m–1 for Nano fluids containing bare Fe3O4 nanoparticles was 11.5 W/g but in experimental tests the obtained value was 9.72 W/g for nano fluid containing 20,000 ppm of dispersed nanoparticles. The experimental SAR calculation was repeated for sample containing 10,000 ppm of nanoparticles and the results showed increase in experimental SAR that is an evidence of nanoparticles agglomeration in higher concentrations. The surface modification has improved the dispersion ability of the nanoparticles. The Ratio of SAR, experimental, 20000ppm to SAR, experimental, 10000ppm was 0.85 for bare Fe3O4 nanoparticles dispersion but in case of surface modified nanoparticles this ratio has increased up to 0.98 that shows lower agglomeration of nanoparticles as a result of surface modification, although on the other hand the surface modification agents were magnetically passive and so it is expected that in constant concentration the SAR for bare Fe3O4 nanoparticles to be higher than this variable for surface modified nanoparticles. At lower concentrations the dispersions containing bare Fe3O4 nanoparticles showed higher SAR values but at higher concentrations the surface modified Fe3O4 nanoparticles showed better results although the active agent amount was lower at them. Finally, it should be noted that the nanoparticles that were surface modified using polymeric agents showed the highest decrease in experimental SAR amounts comparing theoretical results that was because of the large molecules of polymers comparing other implemented surface modification agents.

Rotationally Adjustable Hyperthermia Applicators: A Computational Comparative Study of Circular and Linear Array Applicators

Microwave breast hyperthermia (MH) aims to increase the temperature at the tumor location with minimal change in the healthy tissue. To this end, the specific absorption rate (SAR) inside the breast is optimized. The choice of the MH applicator design is important for a superior energy focus on the target. Although hyperthermia treatment planning (HTP) changes for every patient, the MH applicator is required to be effective for different breast models and tumor types. The linear applicator (LA) is one of the previously proposed applicator designs with linearly arranged antennas; however, it suffers from low focusing ability in certain breast regions due to its unsymmetrical geometrical features. In this paper, we propose to radially adjust the LA to obtain alternative excitation schemes without actually changing the applicator. Antipodal Vivaldi antennas were utilized, and the antenna excitations were optimized with particle swarm optimization (PSO). The comparison of the rotated and the fixed linear applicator, between 12-antenna circular and linear applicators, and finally, between a 24-antenna circular applicator are provided. Within the 12 rotation angles and two target locations that were analyzed, the 135° axially rotated linear applicator gave a 35% to 84% higher target-to-breast SAR ratio (TBRS) and a 21% to 28% higher target-to-breast temperature ratio (TBRT) than the fixed linear applicator. For the deep-seated target, the 135° rotated linear applicator had an 80% higher TBRS and a 59% higher TBRT than the 12-antenna circular applicator, while the results were comparable to the 24-antenna circular applicator.

Retrospective analysis of RF heating measurements of passive medical implants.

The test reports for the RF-induced heating of metallic devices of hundreds of medical implants have been provided to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a part of premarket submissions. The main purpose of this study is to perform a retrospective analysis of the RF-induced heating data provided in the reports to analyze the trends and correlate them with implant geometric characteristics. The ASTM-based RF heating test reports from 86 premarket U.S. Food and Drug Administration submissions were reviewed by three U.S. Food and Drug Administration reviewers. From each test report, the dimensions and RF-induced heating values for a given whole-body (WB) specific absorption rate (SAR) and local background (LB) SAR were extracted and analyzed. The data from 56 stents were analyzed as a subset to further understand heating trends and length dependence. For a given WB SAR, the LB/WB SAR ratio varied significantly across the test labs, from 2.3 to 11.3. There was an increasing trend on the temperature change per LB SAR with device length. The maximum heating for stents occurred at lengths of approximately 100 mm at 3 T, and beyond 150 mm at 1.5 T. Differences in the LB/WB SAR ratios across testing labs and various MRI scanners could lead to inconsistent WB SAR labeling. Magnetic resonance (MR) conditional labeling based on WB SAR should be derived from a conservative estimate of global LB/WB ratios.

Comments on “Ensuring safety of implanted devices under MRI using reversed polarization”

In the work titled ‘‘Ensuring Safety of Implanted Devices Under MRI Using Reversed RF Polarization,’’ the authors propose a method based on reversed polarization, which can be used as a prescan technique for patients with implants. In their work, to visualize qualitatively the induced radiofrequency (RF) currents on a metallic lead inside the patient, they propose to reverse the RF polarization for the transmit and/or the receive procedure. They performed simulations and experiments to investigate the performance of this technique and correctly identified the dangerous coupling currents that may cause risk to the patients. They formulated the RF field that is generated by an induced current on a straight wire, and they calculated its effect on the image intensity in both the forward and the reversed polarization cases. They compared these analytical test results with the experiments and showed that the results accurately match. They claim that the coupling currents can be visualized with better sensitivity when reversed polarization is used. According to the authors, the transmit polarization reversal provides better background suppression, making it easier to distinguish signal variation in the vicinity of the lead from variations due to anatomy. With polarization reversal, they claim that better wire-signal accuracy is provided. Although using reversed polarization to visualize the coupling currents is an innovative idea and could enhance the safety of patients with implants who are undergoing MRI, with this letter we would like to note that there may be certain situations where the proposed method may not work efficiently to accurately visualize the induced currents. In these specific cases, the RF safety of the patient could still be under question.

Local Exposure System for Rats Head Using a Figure-8 Loop Antenna in 1500-MHz Band

Cellular phones are used in the vicinity of the human head, resulting in localized exposure to this part of the body. To simulate exposure during cellular phone use, microwave energy absorption should be focused within the head region of laboratory animals. In this paper, we developed an exposure system using a figure-8 loop antenna to permit localized exposure of a rat head to 1500-MHz microwave fields, simulating human head exposure to cellular phones. We have numerically estimated the specific absorption rate (SAR) in a rat exposed to microwave fields via our new exposure system. The high ratio of SAR averaged over the target tissue (i.e., the brain) to that averaged over the whole body suggests that the figure-8 antenna can realize greater localized exposure than the previously used exposure system. We have also confirmed the effectiveness of our proposed system experimentally.

A Head-Local-Exposure System for Rats Using a Figure-8 Loop Antenna in the 2GHz Band

This paper proposes a head-local-exposure system using a figure-8 loop antenna for 2-GHz band operation. This system allows us to observe biological effects through microcirculation of the rat brain simultaneously with exposure through a cranial window, i.e., the window made by transparent glass and implanted on the surface of the rat brain. The specific absorption rate (SAR) in a rat exposed to microwaves due to the new exposure system is estimated numerically and experimentally. The ratio of averaged SAR between the target area, which is the brain's surface just under the cranial window, and the whole body is about 59 for the 8-week rat model and 13 for the 2-week rat model. This antenna achieves local exposure for the rat brain for 2-GHz band operation.

Numerical Calculation of Peak-to-Average Specific Absorption Rate on Different Human Thorax Models for Magnetic Resonance Safety Considerations

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is considered a safe technology since it relies only on spatial encoding of the position of atomic nuclei (mainly protons) in a static magnetic field irradiating them with radio-frequency (RF) pulses instead of ionizing radiation. Specific absorption rate (SAR) is the most frequently used parameter for monitoring and quantifying the power deposition on a subject during an MRI examination. The peak-to-average SAR ratio is important information for the MRI operator during the acquisition sequence setup. In this work, a birdcage body coil model is used for RF excitation of several inhomogeneous human thorax models with different sizes and weights. To study the peak-to-average SAR ratio correlation with sample metrics, numerical simulations using the finite difference time domain method were performed to estimate the peak and average SAR values on the entire sample volume. Results for 11 different thorax models indicate a strong correlation between the peak-to-average SAR value and the sample metrics.

SAR and temperature: simulations and comparison to regulatory limits for MRI.

To present and discuss numerical calculations of the specific absorption rate (SAR) and temperature in comparison to regulatory limits. While it is possible to monitor whole-body or whole-head average SAR and/or core body temperature during MRI in practice, this is not generally true for local SAR values or local temperatures throughout the body. While methods of calculation for SAR and temperature are constantly being refined, methods for interpreting results of these calculations in light of regulatory limits also warrant discussion. Numerical calculations of SAR and temperature for the human head in a volume coil for MRI at several different frequencies are presented. Just as the field pattern changes with the frequency, so do the temperature distribution and the ratio of maximum local SAR (in 1-g or 10-g regions) to whole-head average SAR. In all of the cases studied here this ratio is far greater than that in the regulatory limits, indicating that existing limits on local SAR will be exceeded before limits on whole-body or whole-head average SAR are reached. Calculations indicate that both SAR and temperature distributions vary greatly with B(1) field frequency, that temperature distributions do not always correlate well with SAR distributions, and that regulatory limits on local temperature may not be exceeded as readily as those on local SAR.

Optimization of the sources in local hyperthermia using a combined finite element-genetic algorithm method

This article describes an optimization process specially designed for local and regional hyperthermia in order to achieve the desired specific absorption rate in the patient. It is based on a genetic algorithm coupled to a finite element formulation. The optimization method is applied to real human organs meshes assembled from computerized tomography scans. A 3D finite element formulation is used to calculate the electromagnetic field in the patient, achieved by radiofrequency or microwave sources. Space discretization is performed using incomplete first order edge elements. The sparse complex symmetric matrix equation is solved using a conjugate gradient solver with potential projection pre-conditionning. The formulation is validated by comparison of calculated specific absorption rate distributions in a phantom to temperature measurements. A genetic algorithm is used to optimize the specific absorption rate distribution to predict the phases and amplitudes of the sources leading to the best focalization. The objective function is defined as the specific absorption rate ratio in the tumour and healthy tissues. Several constraints, regarding the specific absorption rate in tumour and the total power in the patient, may be prescribed. Results obtained with two types of applicators (waveguides and annular phased array) are presented and show the faculties of the developed optimization process.

Theoretical evaluation of dielectric absorption of microwave energy at the scale of nucleic acids.

A theoretical model is proposed for the evaluation of dielectric properties of the cell nucleus between 0.3 and 3 GHz, as a function of its nucleic acids (NA) concentration (CNA). It is based on literature data on dielectric properties of DNA solutions and nucleoplasm. In skeletal muscle cells, the specific absorption rate (SAR) ratio between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm is found to be larger than one for CNA above 30 mg/ml. A nearly linear relationship is found between CNA and this nucleocytoplasmic SAR ratio. Considering the nanoscale of the layer of condensed counterions and bound water molecules at the NA-solution interface, the power absorption per unit volume is evaluated at this precise location. It is found to be between one and two orders of magnitude above that in muscle tissue as a whole. Under realistic microwave (MW) exposure conditions, however, these SAR inhomogeneities do not generate any significant thermal gradient at the scale considered here. Nevertheless, the question arises of a possible biological relevance of nonnegligible and preferential heat production at the location of the cell nucleus and of the NA molecules.

INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION AND TEMPERATURE RISE FOR TRANSCRANIAL BRAIN ULTRASOUND HYPERTHERMIA

The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the intensity distribution and the temperature responses when ultrasound beams are used for the intact brain tumor hyperthermia. A search method is developed to search for the appropriate transducer diameter and the input power level that induce a well focused high intensity region and an effective thermal dose region to enhance the goodness of the brain ultrasound hyperthermia treatments. This work employs a simplified model of a scanned ultrasound transducer power deposition (a cone with convergent/divergent shape). Multiple reflections and transmissions occurring at the interfaces are taken into consideration of calculating the intensity distribution as an ultrasound plane wave propagates through skull bone into brain tissue. The distributions of ultrasound intensity, specific absorption rate ratio, and temperature are used to determine the appropriateness of the transducer diameter and the input power level for a yielded set of tumor conditions. Simulation results demonstrate that (1) the maximum intensity ratio in the tumor region is larger than that in the bone region for all frequencies; (2) the treatments for larger tumors become more difficult to solve if the ratio of the diameter of transducer to the tumor diameter is less than 10 when one tries to use only high intensity ultrasound exposure to cause small lesions due to the cavitation effects. Results demonstrate the feasibility of inducing both a well focused high intensity region to produce local cavitation lesions and an effective thermal dose region to enhance the goodness of the intact brain ultrasound hyperthermia treatments. The results of this study can be a guideline for designing an optimal ultrasound heating system, arranging the transducers, and implementing further treatment planning for the transcranial brain tumor hyperthermia.

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTROL PARAMETERS AND TUMOR/BONE CONDITIONS FOR EXTERNAL ULTRASOUND HYPERTHERMIA

The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between the control parameters and the tumor/bone conditions, and also to determine the domain determined by the treatable tumor size and tumor depth for an external ultrasound hyperthermia. This work employs computer simulation programs based on a simplified model of a scanned ultrasound transducer power deposition, the steadystate bio-heat transfer equation, and a search algorithm. The low bounds of SR (specific absorption rate ratio) and f · SR (f : ultrasound frequency) are determined based on the temperature distributions for large ranges of blood perfusion and ultrasound frequencies. These low bounds of SR and f · SR are then used to investigate the relationship between the control parameters and the tumor/bone conditions and to determine the treatable domain. The control parameters considered are the acoustic window size, ultrasound frequency; and the tumor/bone conditions are tumor size, tumor depth, and the depth of post-target bone. Simulation results demonstrate that a) the low bounds of SR and f · SR are functions of blood perfusion; b) the ultrasound frequency to obtain the largest treatable tumor size depends on the tumor depth and the depth of post-target bone, however it is independent of the acoustic window size; and c) the treatable domain is proportional to the acoustic window size and the depth of post-target bone, and a proper frequency can result in a larger treatable domain. The results of this study can be a guideline for designing an optimal ultrasound heating system, arranging the transducers, and implementing further treatment planning for the external ultrasound hyperthermia.

Theoretical study of convergent ultrasound hyperthermia for treating bone tumors

This study investigates the optimal external parameters for using an ultrasound applicator for treating bone tumors. This system utilized spherically arranged applicators such as scanned focused ultrasound, and spherically focused multielement applicators. The power deposition pattern is modeled as geometric gain with exponential attenuation. The specific absorption rate ratio ( SARR) criteria have been used to determine the proper heating domain of ultrasound driving frequency and therapeutic tumor diameter. The results demonstrate that the optimal driving frequency depends on tumor depth, ultrasound absorption of bone marrow, and diameter of bone, but it is independent of the acoustic window area and SARR. The treatable diameter of bone tumor increased when the absorption ratio of bone marrow to tumor, acoustic window of surface skin, and diameter of bone were elevated. However, the treatable diameter of bone tumor decreased when muscle thickness, SARR of bone tumor site to the surface skin, bone marrow, and bone declined. To deliver the ultrasound energy into the tumor site and to avoid the potential damage to the normal tissue as much as possible, the specific absorption rate ( SAR) in the bone tumor site has to be three times higher than that in the surface skin, tumor/marrow, and marrow/bone interfaces. The temperature distributions can verify the SARR criteria in this model. This study provides the information for choosing the optimal operating frequency of the ultrasound transducer and the acoustic window on the skin surface, and for designing the ultrasound applicator for clinical implementation.

Theoretical study of temperature elevation at muscle/bone interface during ultrasound hyperthermia.

This paper examines the distributions of the SAR (specific absorption rate) ratio and temperature elevation when an ultrasound beam propagates through the interface of muscle and bone. This interface is regarded as a flat boundary to partition the energy of the ultrasound beam, and the analytical solution of temperature distribution is based on the steady-state bio-heat transfer equation. The parameters considered are the incident angle of ultrasound beam, the ultrasound frequency, the acoustic attenuation coefficients of refracted longitudinal and shear waves in bone, and the blood perfusion in muscle. The results show that the peak of the SAR ratio is always at the interface of muscle and bone, while the peak of temperature is located in the bone region beyond the interface. A muscle with lower perfusion or a bone with higher acoustic attenuation results in the shifting of the temperature peak closer to the interface. It is more difficult to heat a higher perfused muscle in front of a bone using a lower frequency ultrasound since the temperature elevation for bone relative to muscle is greater.

A theoretical study of cylindrical ultrasound transducers for intracavitary hyperthermia

Purpose: The purpose of this paper was to examine the heating patterns and penetration depth when a cylindrical ultrasound transducer is employed for intracavitary hyperthermia treatments. Methods and Materials: The present study employs a simulation program based on a simplified power deposition model for infinitely long cylindrical ultrasound transducers. The ultrasound power in the tissue is assumed to be exponentially attenuated according to the penetration depth of the ultrasound beam, and a uniform attenuation for the entire treatment region is also assumed. The distribution of specific absorption rate (SAR) ratio (the ratio of SAR for a point within the tissue to that for a specific point on the cavity surface) is used to determine the heating pattern for a set of given parameters. The parameters considered are the ultrasound attenuation in the tissue, the cavity size, and the transducer eccentricity. Results: Simulation results show that the ultrasound attenuation in the tissue, the cavity size, and the transducer eccentricity are the most influential parameters for the distribution of SAR ratio. A low frequency transducer located in a large cavity can produce a much better penetration. The cavity size is the major parameter affecting the penetration depth for a small cavity size, such as interstitial hyperthermia. The heating pattern can also be dramatically changed by the transducer eccentricity and radiating sector. In addition, for a finite length of cylindrical transducer, lower SAR ratio appears in the regions near the applicator’s edges. Conclusion: The distribution of SAR ratio indicates the relationship between the treatable region and the parameters if an appropriate threshold of SAR ratio is taken. The findings of the present study comprehend whether or not a tumor is treatable, as well as select the optimal driving frequency, the appropriate cavity size, and the eccentricity of a cylindrical transducer for a specific treatment.

Treatable domain and optimal frequency for brain tumors during ultrasound hyperthermia

Purpose: To examine the optimal ultrasound frequency and the treatable domain determined by the tumor size and tumor depth when an external ultrasound heating system is employed for the brain tumor hyperthermia. Methods and Materials: This work employs a simplified model of a scanned ultrasound transducer power deposition (a cone with convergent/divergent shape) and a search algorithm to investigate the optimal frequency and the treatable domain. The distributions of temperature and SAR (specific absorption rate) ratio are used to determine the appropriateness of the acoustic window size and the input power level for a yielded set of tumor conditions. The factors considered are the acoustic window size, tumor size and depth, ultrasound frequency, and the acoustic absorption of the post-target bone behind the tumor. Results: Simulation results demonstrate that the optimal frequency depends on the tumor depth and the acoustic absorption of the post-target bone. However, it is almost independent of the acoustic window size. The optimal frequency shifts to a higher level for a deeper tumor heating to reduce the effect of the high acoustic absorption of post-target bone. Moreover, the treatable domain is proportional to the acoustic window size and related to the ultrasound frequency. Conclusion: It may not be possible to deliver appropriate ultrasonic energy to heat a brain tumor without overheating the normal brain tissue and/or the post-target bone under the constraints of the available acoustic window size for the ultrasonic beam, ultrasonic attenuation of brain tissue, high absorption of post-target bone, and high blood perfusion rate. The results of this study can be a guideline for designing an optimal ultrasound heating system, arranging the transducers, and implementing further treatment planning for the brain tumor hyperthermia.

Development of a rat head exposure system for simulating human exposure to RF fields from handheld wireless telephones

The aim of this project was to develop an animal exposure system for the biological effect studies of radio frequency fields from handheld wireless telephones, with energy deposition in animal brains comparable to those in humans. The finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method was initially used to compute specific absorption rate (SAR) in an ellipsoidal rat model exposed with various size loop antennas at different distances from the model. A 3 x 1 cm rectangular loop produced acceptable SAR patterns. A numerical rat model based on CT images was developed by curve-fitting Hounsfield Units of CT image pixels to tissue dielectric properties and densities. To design a loop for operating at high power levels, energy coupling and impedance matching were optimized using capacitively coupled feed lines embedded in a Teflon rod. Sprague Dawley rats were exposed with the 3 x 1 cm loop antennas, tuned to 837 or 1957 MHz for thermographically determined SAR distributions. Point SARs in brains of restrained rats were also determined thermometrically using fiberoptic probes. Calculated and measured SAR patterns and results from the various exposure configurations are in general agreement. The FDTD computed average brain SAR and ratio of head to whole body absorption were 23.8 W/kg/W and 62% at 837 MHz, and 22.6 W/kg/W and 89% at 1957 MHz. The average brain to whole body SAR ratio was 20 to 1 for both frequencies. At 837 MHz, the maximum measured SAR in the restrained rat brains was 51 W/kg/W in the cerebellum and 40 W/kg/W at the top of the cerebrum. An exposure system operating at 837 MHz is ready for in vivo biological effect studies of radio frequency fields from portable cellular telephones. Two-tenths of a watt input power to the loop antenna will produce 10 W/kg maximum SAR, and an estimated 4.8 W/kg average brain SAR in a 300 g medium size rat.

Specific absorption rate ratio patterns of cylindrical ultrasound transducers for breast tumors.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the optimal driving frequency and to configure the ultrasound energy deposition schema for a various size and location of breast tissues when a portion or the entire cylindrical ultrasound transducer is employed for breast hyperthermia treatments. This work employs a computer simulation program based on an ideal ultrasound power deposition from a cylindrical transducer. The ultrasound power within the breast is assumed to be exponentially attenuated according to the penetration depth of the ultrasound beam and a uniform absorption for the entire breast is also assumed. The distribution of the specific absorption rate (SAR) ratio is employed to determine the heating pattern of a set of given parameters. The control parameters considered are the ultrasound frequency in the breast tissue, the active portion of cylindrical transducer, and the shifting distance between the central axes of the breast and the transducer. The effect of the breast size on the SAR ratio is also considered. Simulation results demonstrate that the breast size, the ultrasound frequency in breast tissue, the shifting distance, and the active portion of the cylindrical transducer are the potential parameters for influencing the distribution of the SAR ratio. High frequencies should be used for the superficial heating treatments and the active portion of the transducer can be changed to obtain a region with an appropriate SAR ratio to cover the treatment region. Low frequencies are used for deep heating treatments and the region of the high SAR ratio can be moved by shifting the transducer and its pattern is varied with the transducer's active portion. The distribution of the SAR ratio indicates the domain of treatable tumor size and tumor depth for a given set of parameters (driving frequency, shifting distance and active portion of the transducer, as well as breast diameter). Findings of this study can be used to know whether or not the tumor is treatable as well as to select the optimal driving frequency and the appropriate active portion of the cylindrical transducer for a treatment, and hopefully to design an appropriate cylindrical ultrasound heating system for breast tumors.

A new applicator utilizing distributed electrodes for hyperthermia: a theoretical approach.

We propose a new type of applicator for hyperthermia namely a Distributed Electrodes Applicator. Many electrodes are fixed on boli below which the patient is placed. A set of RF with optimized amplitudes and phases is supplied to the electrodes so as to minimize the ratio of SAR (specific absorption rate) in the fat layers to that in the central region of the patient. SAR patterns in a heated material were calculated using two-dimensional finite element method, and the results showed that the proposed applicator can heat the deep portions of the patient without excessive heating of the fat layers.

Energy deposition in a model of man: frequency effects.

A computer-controlled scanning system and implantable, nonperturbing electric field probes were used to measure spatial distributions of the electric field in a full scale homogeneous model of a human body. The measurements were performed at three frequencies (160, 350, and 915 MHz) in the far-field and in the near-field of resonant dipoles. The specific absorption rate (SAR) distributions and the averages for body parts and the whole body are analyzed as functions of frequency. In the far-field, the SAR decreases exponentially in the direction of wave propagation in the torso at all frequencies, and large gradients of the SAR are observed along the body main axis, particularly for the E polarization. At 160 and 350 MHz high local SAR's are produced in the neck. It appears that for plane wave exposures the ratio of the peak SAR to the whole-body average SAR does not exceed 20. In the near-field, large SAR gradients are also produced, and the ratios of the peak spatial SAR to the whole-body average SAR vary from about 30 to 250 depending on the frequency and polarization. It is suggested that for near-field exposures the whole-body average SAR is not a proper dosimetric measure, and the SAR averaged over any 0.1 of the tissue volume is recommended instead.