Satureja Species Research Articles

Areas and Resources of the Satureja L. Genus in Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan)

The study of the habitats and resources of 4 species of Satureja: Satureja hortensis L., S. laxiflora K. Koch, S. macrantha C. A. Mey. and S. mutica Fisch. et C. A. Mey. from the Lamiaceae family being a valuable essential oil plant. S. macrantha previously, single specimens were found in the Kyzylkaya and Negram-Dorosham mountains. 2018 we managed to identify the mountains of Darydag of Julfa district. In 2018, we managed to develop the Darydag, then 4 new locations in Mamadein, Keleki, Damir and Lalali mountain in the Ordubad district (1400–2800 m). Here Satureja grandiflora forms hitherto undescribed formations and associations covering vast rocky areas. S. laxiflora and S. mutica are newly identified species. It has been established that this species is a spinning, essential oil, medicinal and anti-erosion plant. We studied environmental conditions, the role in the formation of rock-talus vegetation in the region, economic importance, rational use and protection. We recommend expedient, planned and reasonable use of natural resources, the species of Satureja laxiflora, S. grandiflora, will expand crops, plantations of the cultivated species S. hortensis L.

Chemical composition, functional properties, physico-chemical properties, and techno-functional characteristics of Satureja protein hydrolysate stabilized in a gelatin matrix.

The current evaluation was conducted to investigate the chemical composition and functional properties of protein hydrolysates from different Satureja species. The major amino acids (mg/100 g protein) in the protein from different Satureja species were arginine (6.06-14.37), asparagine (1.39-17.06), glutamine (2.42-11.60), glutamic acid (6.34-9.32), beta-aminoisobutyric acid (3.31-10.29), alanine (4.64-9.59), aspartic acid (5.73-9.54), proline (4.25-8.14), leucine (3.63-5.69), serine (2.64-4.83), lysine (1.89-4.56), glycine (0.96-5.27), valine (2.76-4.83), and phenylalanine (2.86-3.75). Protein hydrolysates from Satureja species exhibited comparable antioxidant activity (IC50 = 0.270-0.328 mg/mL), anti-linoleic acid oxidation (IC50 = 0.231-0.301 mg/mL), anti-lecithin oxidation (IC50 = 0.198-0.258 mg/mL), anti-starch oxidation (IC50 = 0.201-0.277 mg/mL), anti-amylase activity (IC50 = 0.314-0.337 mg/mL), and anti-lipase activity (IC50 = 0.309-0.369 mg/mL). The physico-chemical properties of gelatin dispersion were electrical conductivity (1197 microsiemens/cm), osmolarity (190 milliosmol/kg), surface tension (45 mN/m), particle size (179 nm), zeta potential (-48 mV), and viscosity (4.92 mPa.s). Techno-functional characteristics of freeze-dried gelatin particles were as follows: water content (7.68%), water solubility (84.57%), water swelling (151.33%), hygroscopicity (38.20%), hydrophobicity (6.50 μg/g), emulsification activity (68.54%), emulsification stability (57.86%), foam expansion activity (56.08%), foam stability (41.84%), oil-holding capacity (1.96 g/g), and water-holding capacity (4.45 g/g). Protein hydrolysate causes minor changes in the physico-chemical and techno-functional properties of gelatin. The current investigation introduces Satureja protein hydrolysate as a possible functional and techno-functional ingredient for bioactive food products for treating diabetes and oxidative stress and as a natural preservative for the food industry.

The biochemical properties of Satureja species affected by micronutrients, genotype, and locations in drought stress conditions

Medicinal plants, as important sources of secondary metabolites, are used for treating different diseases. It is accordingly pertinent to find methods, which may improve their growth and quality in different conditions including variable stresses. It was hypothesized micronutrients use and suitable genotypes may improve Satureja growth and quality in drought stress conditions. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of drought stress (irrigating plants each 3 (A1), 6 (A2) and 9 days (A3)), micronutrients (Mn and Cu at 0 (M1), 20 (M2) and 40 mgL−1 (M3)), and field location (Isfahan (F1) and Golpayegan (cooler) (F2), Isfahan province, Iran) on the biochemical properties of different Satureja species including S. bakhtiarica, S. khuzestanica and S. mutica. The experimental treatments significantly affected the measured parameters including nodule number, essential oil, antioxidant activity, proline, Mn and Cu contents, and relative water content. Although Cu and Mn, enhanced plant biochemical properties, especially in M2, in some cases, the two micronutrients, unfavorably affected plant properties in M3. The responses of genotypes were different in the two research fields and S. bakhtiarica performed better in F2. The highest essential oil was resulted by A2. The two micronutrients improved plant responses in drought stress by increasing nodule number (148 %), and essential oil yield (143 %) and decreasing plant relative water content and conserving plant water. The use of Mn and Cu is recommendable for planting Satureja species in drought stress conditions, as the two nutrients may enhance plant tolerance by increasing proline production and antioxidant activities.

Current Advances in Medicinal Plants, Plant Physiology, Eco-Agricultural Sciences and Modern Applications for Coping the Plant Stresses

Natural products are valuable source of pharmacological substances, and traditional herbal medicine is the source of many modern drugs used in pharmacotherapy. Many plant species belonging to the Asteraceae and Lamiaceae families are used as medicines for various ailments. The Satureja species has analgesic, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilatory qualities. Many kinds of modern drugs, such as aspirin, are derived indirectly from medicinal herbs. Many food crops have medicinal qualities, such as garlic. Among the many naturally occurring phenolic compounds found in herbal plants is ferulic acid (FA). The most harmful environmental stress that is thought to reduce agricultural productivity more than any other is drought. Drought stress, for example, inhibits plant growth because water is necessary for cell turgor, which is the force that a confined liquid applies to cell walls to induce cells to enlarge. All stages of a plant's life cycle, including seed germination, seedling development, vegetative growth, and blooming, are significantly impacted by salinity. Energy transfers, plant maturity, fruiting, and seed formation are all significantly influenced by phosphorus.

A comprehensive review of summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.): promising ingredient for production of functional foods.

This review aims to measure the different aspects of summer savory including biological activity, medicinal properties, nutritional value, food application, prospective health benefits, and its use as an additive in broiler feed. Furthermore, toxicity related to this is also overviewed. Summer savory leaves are abundant in total phenolic compounds (rosmarinic acid and flavonoids) that have a powerful antioxidant impact. Rosmarinic (α-O-caffeoyl-3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl lactic) acid has been identified in summer savory as a main component. According to phytochemical investigations, tannins, volatile oils, sterols, acids, gums, pyrocatechol, phenolic compounds, mucilage, and pyrocatechol are the primary compounds of Satureja species. Summer savory extract shows considerable biological potential in antioxidant, cytotoxic, and antibacterial assays. Regarding antioxidant activity, summer savory extract displays an inhibitory effect on lipid peroxidation. Summer savory also has Fe (III) reductive and free radical scavenging properties and contains minerals and vitamins. Summer savory has important biological properties, including antimicrobial activity and antioxidant activity, and protective effects against Jurkat T Cells, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, infection, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cholesterol. The leaves and stems of this plant are employed in the food, feed, and pharmacological industries due to their antioxidant properties and substantial nutritional content. Conclusively, summer savory is widely considered beneficial for human health due to its versatile properties and medicinal use.

Comparative transcriptome analysis to identify putative genes involved in carvacrol biosynthesis pathway in two species of Satureja, endemic medicinal herbs of Iran.

Satureja is rich in phenolic monoterpenoids, mainly carvacrol, that is of interest due to diverse biological activities including antifungal and antibacterial. However, limited information is available regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying carvacrol biosynthesis and its regulation for this wonderful medicinal herb. To identify the putative genes involved in carvacrol and other monoterpene biosynthesis pathway, we generated a reference transcriptome in two endemic Satureja species of Iran, containing different yields (Satureja khuzistanica and Satureja rechingeri). Cross-species differential expression analysis was conducted between two species of Satureja. 210 and 186 transcripts related to terpenoid backbone biosynthesis were identified for S. khuzistanica and S. rechingeri, respectively. 29 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in terpenoid biosynthesis were identified, and these DEGs were significantly enriched in monoterpenoid biosynthesis, diterpenoid biosynthesis, sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis and ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis pathways. Expression patterns of S. khuzistanica and S. rechingeri transcripts involved in the terpenoid biosynthetic pathway were evaluated. In addition, we identified 19 differentially expressed transcription factors (such as MYC4, bHLH, and ARF18) that may control terpenoid biosynthesis. We confirmed the altered expression levels of DEGs that encode carvacrol biosynthetic enzymes using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). This study is the first report on de novo assembly and transcriptome data analysis in Satureja which could be useful for an understanding of the main constituents of Satureja essential oil and future research in this genus.

Reproductive Capacity and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analyses of the Micromorphological Surfaces of Three Endemic Satureja Species from Bulgaria.

Satureja pilosa Velen., S. coerulea Janka and S. kitaibelii Wierzb. ex Heuff. are Balkan endemic species, and they are distributed in restricted territories, primarily found in dry grasslands, rocky slopes, and stony habitats. This study presents the results of the first embryological and micromorphological analyses of three Satureja species (S. pilosa, S. kitaibelii, and S. coerulea) from the Bulgarian flora. The aim of this study was to establish the features of the male and female reproductive sphere, as well as surface characteristics of leaves, stem, and calyx in order to understand the mode of reproduction, character, size and state of species populations and delimitation. For the embryological study, flowers and flower buds in different developmental stages were collected from plants of natural populations and treated with the classic paraffin method. Reproductive capacity was assessed using the following approaches: (1) acetocarmine test for pollen viability, (2) tetrazolium test (TTZ) for seed viability, and (3) germination test. The surfaces characteristics of leaves, stem, and calyx were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). As a result, the study revealed the structures of the male (M) and female (F) generative spheres as well as the processes of gamete development, pollination, and endosperm and embryo formation. It was found that the three Satureja species exhibited a high pollen viability but low seed viability and germination. The SEM analysis showed both common and distinct micromorphology features regarding epidermis, calyx and stem surfaces among the three Satureja species. Notably, the S. coerulea surfaces (leaves, calyx, stem) were clearly distinguishable from the other two Satureja species. Regarding the nutlet surfaces, it was observed that the exocarp surfaces of S. coerulea and S. kitaibelii have a reticulate convex type surface and comprise two types of cells: (1) highly bulging, bubble-like cells; and (2) flat cells with numerous striations. On the other hand, the exocarp of S. pilosa displayed rectangular or polygonal shapes without bubble-like cells, and it had a tabular to slightly convex type surface. Additionally, nutlets (seeds) of both S. coerulea and S. pilosa exhibited distinct papilla formations resembling non-glandular trichomes seen on the ends of the nutlets for S. coerulea and over the entire surface for S. pilosa. The characteristics of the embryological structures and processes, along with the absence of apomixis, characterized the three studied Satureja species as sexually reproducing. The established balanced processes and stable structures contribute to their high reproductive potential and population stability. However, these traits may also decrease their adaptability to environmental changes.

Comparative analysis of essential oils from two Satureja species; extraction methods, chemical composition, and antimicrobial activities

This study aimed to investigate the antibacterial and antifungal properties of the essential oils extracted from two medicinal plants, Satureja sahendica and Satureja spicigera. Three different methods, including Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) extraction, Clevenger hydrodistillation (Clevenger HD) extraction, and simultaneous distillation-extraction (SDE), were employed to isolate the volatile components of the two species, and then extraction efficiencies were compared. The composition of the essential oils was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results revealed that the two plant species contain a significant amount of oxygenated monoterpenes, while sesquiterpenes have a lower percentage. The main compounds of S. sahendica and S. spicigera essential were thymol (10.28–46.83%), carvacrol (7.81–36.88%), terpinolene (5.73–28.53%), ɣ-terpinene (14.76–16.27%), linalool (5.11–14.43%), p-cymene (8.23–12.33%), terpinen-4-0l (4.93–9.97%), germacerene (8.19–9.44%), α-pinene (5.22–8.41%), thymoquinane (4.49–7.65%), 1,8-cineole (4.82–6.83%), spathulenol (3.01–5.47%). To study the antibacterial and antifungal effects of the obtained essential oils, the micro broth dilution method was used on four bacterial species, including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as the fungus Candida albicans. The results indicated that both species essential oils had a high activity against C. albicans, while P. aeruginosa was the most resistant bacteria. Furthermore, it was found that S. sahendica essential oil exhibited a greater antimicrobial effect than S. spicigera. This study provides valuable insights into the antibacterial and antifungal effects of essential oils extracted from S. Sahendica and S. Spicigera, which have potential applications in medicinal industry.

Comparative assessment of habitat suitability and niche overlap of three medicinal and melliferous Satureja L. species (Lamiaceae) from the eastern Adriatic region: Exploring potential for cultivation

In Croatia, there are three Satureja species groups (tSsg) within the Satureja L. genus that are most widely used as medicinal and melliferous plants: the Satureja montana complex, S. subspicata complex and S. cuneifolia. Due to the high melliferous and medicinal potential of these taxa, our objective was to comparatively assess the habitat suitability of the tSsg to estimate their cultivation potential in the eastern Adriatic region. In addition, we assessed their overlaps in geographic and environmental space and investigated the occurrence of the putative hybrid taxon S. × karstiana in the areas of overlap between the two parental taxa (S. montana and S. subspicata). Finally, the differences in the environmental preferences of these three related species groups were investigated. The species distribution models were built using the maximum entropy method (MaxEnt) based on the occurrences of the tSsg, obtained from our field research in 2018–2021 and partly from the Flora Croatica Database. Six environmental variables (three bioclimatic and three topographic) were selected as predictors. The potential habitat suitability of the tSsg under current conditions showed high predictive model performance, with AUC values ranging from 0.890 to 0.910 ± 0.025. The environmental predictors with the highest mean percent contributions to the models were annual temperature range (Bio 7) for S. montana (74.3%) and S. subspicata (65.9%) and downwards surface solar radiation (Srad) for S. cuneifolia (40%). Majority (>90%) of the known S. × karstiana hybrid occurrences were found within the areas of habitat suitability overlap between the two parental taxa, confirming the model accuracy and efficiency in the discovery of putative hybrids. Finally, the niche overlap in environmental space between the investigated taxa pairs was the highest between S. montana and S. subspicata, enabling their hybridization, and lowest between S. cuneifolia and S. subspicata. Due to the widest potential distribution and broadest environmental niche, our results suggest that S. montana has the highest potential for cultivation for medicinal and melliferous purposes in the eastern Adriatic, particularly in light of ongoing climate change.

Chromosome number of some Satureja species from Turkey

The genus Satureja belonging to the Lamiaceae family includes about 200 species, generally aromatic, distributed in the Mediterranean basin. In genus Satureja, the chromosomal data were reported from only 26 species. In this study, it is aimed to eliminate the deficiencies in the chromosomal data of Satureja species, which are distributed in Turkey, which is center of origin and diversity of the genus Satureja. It was reported only one chromosome number (2n = 30), the first report for chromosome numbers of three taxa, the same chromosome count (excluding B-chromosomes) with previous report in only one species, and the new chromosome number in only one species. In conclusion, this study presented new data into the chromosomal records of genus Satureja that might be useful for interpreting or understanding relationships among the species. In addition, dysploidy and polyploidy variations might probably have played an important role in speciation. In this regard, the results contributed to some missing data in Satureja cytotaxonomy.

Comparison of the chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils from two Satureja species: Molecular docking studies

The Satureja species (family Lamiaceae) are economically important plants; they have been used as medicinal plants, flavoring in food, and cosmetic material for centuries. The volatile oils of two Satureja species, S. khuzistanica and S. rechingeri, were obtained by hydrodistillation method with Clevenger-type apparatus. The chemical composition of oils was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The major constituent of S. khuzistanica oil was Carvacrol (68.7%) and those of S. rechingeri oil were Thymol (51.28%) and Carvacrol (22.08%). Anticholinesterase and anticancer activities were screened by Ellman’s method and MTT assay, respectively. Besides, the role of non-covalent interactions in cholinesterase enzyme (ChE) inhibition by the main ingredient, Carvacrol, was studied through docking calculations. The inhibitory activity of S. khuzistanica oil was higher than those of S. rechingeri oil with IC50: 377.14±2.36 and 251.37±1.88 µg/ml against acetylcholinesterase enzyme (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase enzyme (BChE). S. rechingeri essential oil was found to possess relatively moderate cytotoxic activity with IC50 values of 488.96±3.19 µg/ml and 767.22±3.19 µg/ml on A2780 and PC-3 cells, respectively. The role of hydrogen bonding and π…π stacking interactions in enzyme inhibition by a common ingredient, Carvacrol, was characterized. Resumen. Las especies Satureja (familia Lamiaceae) son plantas económicamente relevantes; durante siglos se han utilizado como plantas medicinales, saborizantes en alimentos y material cosmético. Se obtuvieron los aceites volátiles de dos especies de Satureja, S. khuzistanica y S. rechingeri, empleando el método de hidrodestilación con un aparato tipo Clevenger. La composición química de los aceites se analizó mediante cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectrometría de masas (GC-MS). El componente principal del aceite de S. khuzistanica fue el carvacrol (68,7 %) y los del aceite de S. rechingeri fueron el timol (51,28 %) y el carvacrol (22,08 %). Se evaluó la actividad anticolinesterasa y anticancerígena emplenado el método de Ellman y el ensayo MTT, respectivamente. Además, se estudió el papel de las interacciones no covalentes en la inhibición de la enzima colinesterasa (ChE) por parte del ingrediente principal, Carvacrol, mediante cálculos de acoplamiento. La actividad inhibidora del aceite de S. khuzistanica fue superior a la del aceite de S. rechingeri con IC50: 377,14±2,36 y 251,37±1,88 µg/ml frente a la enzima acetilcolinesterasa (AChE) y la enzima butirilcolinesterasa (BChE). Se encontró que el aceite esencial de S. rechingeri posee una actividad citotóxica relativamente moderada con valores IC50 de 488,96±3,19 µg/ml y 767,22±3,19 µg/ml en células A2780 y PC-3, respectivamente. Se caracterizó el papel de los enlaces de hidrógeno y las interacciones de apilamiento π…π en la inhibición enzimática por el Carvacrol.

A new annual Satureja (Lamiaceae) species from Turkey with molecular evidence, and lectotypification of two species

A new species, Satureja hasturkii, is described using morphological characters and molecular studies in this study. The new species is closely related to S. hortensis but differs from it by very lax thyrsoid inflorescence, longer pedicels, shorter calyx, upper and lower calyx teeth, and corolla. In order to support the morphological data, molecular studies are also done using nrITS and cptrnL-F gene regions. nrITS data gives better results in phylogenetic analysis. It is pointed out that the closest relatives of S. hasturkii are S. hortensis and S. laxiflora. The fact that having annual life forms of these three species also explain their molecular closeness. With this new species, the number of Satureja species in Turkey increased to 17. Moreover, lectotypes were determined for Satureja macrantha and S. wiedemanniana here.

Diurnal Variations of Essential Oil Content and Composition of Satureja cilicica P.H. Davis under Culture Conditions

Satureja (Lamiaceae) species are aromatic plants used to produce essential oil and aromatic water in the Mediterranean region of Turkey, and Satureja cilicica P.H. Davis is an endemic species for Turkey. This study was conducted to determine the effects of diurnal variability on essential oil (EO) content and components of Satureja cilicica in the Ermenek district/Turkey in 2021. During the day, four different harvest times were considered as follows: 7:30 and 10:30 a.m., 01:30 and 4:30 p.m. at the flowering stage. The aerial parts of harvested plants were dried in the shade. The greatest and least EO contents of S. cilicica aerial parts were obtained at 4:30 p.m. (0.61%) and 1:30 p.m. (0.32%), respectively. The results of the analysis revealed that the major components of essential oils of S. cilicica are p-cymene (19.24-40.04%), carvacrol (16.42-29.59%), thymol (10.04-19.34%), γ-terpinene (4.92-12.94 %) and linalool (4-42-6.53%). In this study, it was determined that the best harvest time for optimum essential oil content and chemical properties was the cool hours of the day.

Variability in Morphology and Essential Oil Profile for 30 Populations of Satureja Species with Respect to Climatic Paramours Using Multivariate Analysis: An Opportunity for Industrial Products

Around the world, different parts of most Satureja species are traditionally used to control a wide range of human diseases. The pharmacological and ethnomedical properties of most Satureja species have been evaluated; however, there is no document on the morphological and essential oil (EO) profile of the plants concerning environmental variations. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the variability and correlation of morphological traits and EO compositions of 30 Satureja populations (from 10 species) in various climates of Iran. The plants were collected at the flowering stage in a completely randomized block design (CRBD) in 2018 and were evaluated based on multivariate analysis. The permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) results showed significant differences in morphological traits as well as EO composition in different populations. The redundancy analysis (RDA) showed EO profiles were significantly affected by maximum and minimum temperature and humidity, while changes in morphological characteristics were more related to a maximum temperature, humidity, average maximum temperature, and minimum temperature. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that among 29 morphometric traits, only seven significantly changed the EO quality, and also RDA identified the number of the main branch and vegetative leaf width as the main responsible traits representing the changes in EO profile. According to the significant effects of climatic parameters on morphological and phytochemical compounds of Satureja species, selecting effective environmental factors in the habitats to access the more elevated amount of active substances and desired morphological traits can help breeders to grow and cultivate suitable populations.

Impact of winter savory extract (Satureja montana L.) on biochemical parameters in serum and oxidative status of liver with application of the principal component analysis in extraction solvent selection.

Satureja montana L. is traditionally used as spice and for treatment various diseases. Many studies have shown antioxidative effect of Satureja species. Our thorough study in an animal model was performed through measurement of biochemical parameters in the serum, histology analysis and determination of oxidative status of the liver, coupled with investigation of extraction solvent selection using principal component analysis (PCA). Winter savory dry extract (500 mg/kg) dispersion and saline solution were given to Wistar rats for 7 days after exposure to oxidative stress using toxic doses of paracetamol (600 mg/kg). Rats were sacrificed, after which a complete autopsy was performed, the blood obtained was used to determine biochemical parameters, and the liver was sliced for histological analysis and determination of oxidative stress enzymes. Indicators of hepatic and kidney functions, as well as the concentration of oxidative stress enzymes, were statistically significantly lower in animals treated with Satureja montana L. extract compared to the paracetamol group alone before the toxic dose of paracetamol. Liver enzymes were unaltered by pre-treatment with the extract, but the level of lipid peroxidase was decreased, and the level of catalase, glutathione reductase and superoxide dismutase increased proving in vivo antioxidant effect. In addition, the number of inflammatory cells is decreased coupled with activity of CYP2E1 enzymes proving hepatoprotective effect. Satureja montana L. extract in our research has shown hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effect. PCA analyses indicated that extraction mediums have a great impact on the antioxidative effect.

Biological Control of Penicillium on Lemon Fruits by Essential Oils of Satureja Species

Biological Control of Penicillium on Lemon Fruits by Essential Oils of Satureja Species

Phytochemical Variability of Essential Oils of Two Balkan Endemic Species: Satureja pilosa Velen. and S. kitaibelii Wierzb. ex Heuff. (Lamiaceae).

Satureja pilosa and S. kitaibelii (Lamiaceae) are Balkan endemic plant species, and the composition of their essential oil (EO) is highly variable. The aim of the present study was to establish: (1) the EO variability in two populations of S. pilosa (the intrapopulation), and (2) the EO variation in S. kitaibelii between nine populations (interpopulation) from Bulgaria and two from Serbia. The EOs of two Satureja species were obtained from aboveground plant parts by hydrodistillation and were analyzed by GC/MS/FID. Overall, the EO yield on the intrapopulation level of S. pilosa varied from 0.54% to 2.15%, while the EO of S. kitaibelii varied from 0.04% to 0.43% (interpopulation). The EO of S. pilosa was found to contain thymol and carvacrol as the main constituents, with other major constituents being p-cymene and γ-terpinene. S. pilosa samples in both studied populations formed six chemical groups. The major constituents (p-cymene, terpinen-4-ol, bornyl acetate, γ-muurolene, endo-borneol, cis-β-ocimene, trans-β-ocimene, carvacrol, α-pinene, thymoquinone, geranial, geranyl acetate, spathulenol, and caryophyllene oxide) of S. kitaibelii EO were considered for grouping the populations into ten chemotypes. The present study is the first report on the interpopulation diversity of S. kitaibelii EOs in Bulgaria. It demonstrated variability of the EOs between and within the populations of S. kitaibelii from Bulgaria. This study identified promising genetic material that could be further propagated and developed into cultivars for commercial production of S. kitaibelii and S. pilosa, thereby reducing the impact of collection on wild populations.

Effect of levels and types of organic, biological, and chemical fertilizers on morphological traits, yield, and uptake rate of elements in Satureja mutica

Satureja species are of great economic and medical importance due to their high content of essential oils and use in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Due to the domestication and introduction of Satureja mutica cultivars, for the first time and the lack of comprehensive research on its cultivation, the need for research on the nutritional needs of this plant and the introduction of suitable fertilizer treatments that can be used by farmers is important. This experiment was carried out in 2018 and 2019 in field conditions using randomized complete blocks with three replications and 21 treatments in the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands. The results of mean comparisons of fertilizer treatments (mean of two years) showed that the highest plant height, with 88 and 80 cm, was related to cow manure treatments of 30 and 60 tons per hectare, respectively. The highest flowering shoot yield, with 4427, 4266, and 4113 kg ha−1, was obtained from N50P25K25 + vermicompost10 and N50P25K25 + cow manure60 and N50P25K25 + cow manure30 treatments in the second year, respectively. The lowest yield of the flowering shoot (849 kg ha−1) belonged to Pseudomonas putida treatment. The highest leaf yield, with 2556 and 2441 kg ha−1, was obtained from N25P25K25 + vermicompost10 and N25, P25, K25 +cow manure60 treatments, respectively. According to the results, the highest nitrogen content, with 2.44 and 2.32 g/100 g, was obtained from the cow manure30 treatment in the first and second year, respectively. The maximum nitrogen uptake with 94.43 kg ha−1 was obtained from N50, P25, K25 + vermicompost10. The lowest nitrogen uptake at 24 kg ha−1 was related to Pseudomonas putida treatment. The mean comparison of two years showed that the highest essential oil percentage (2.11 g/100 g) and yield (79.27 kg ha−1) were obtained from the second year compared with the first year. Carvacrol, γ-terpinene, thymol, and p-cymene were the major components in the essential oil. The results showed that the combined treatments of chemical fertilizers with animal manure and vermicompost are suitable treatments to increase the yield of different organs and essential oil yield in field conditions.

Antibacterial activity of plant essential oils obtained from Satureja species against Xanthomonas phaseoli pv. phaseoli and Xanthomonas citri subsp. fuscans

In this study, the antibacterial effects of essential oils obtained from different Satureja species (Satureja cuneifolia Ten., Satureja spicigera (C. Koch) Boiss., Satureja thymbra L., Satureja hortensis L. and Satureja cilicica P.H. Davis) against Xanthomonas phaseoli pv. phaseoli (Smith) Vauterin and Xanthomonas citri subsp. fuscans (Burkholder) Starr & Burkholder, which cause common leaf blight in bean plant, were tested. Essential oils were found to significantly inhibit the growth of bacterial strains of both disease agents in vitro, and the lowest concentrations that prevent bacterial growth were determined for both pathogens. The effects of essential oil applications on seed germination, number of infected cotyledons and disease severity were also evaluated. It was determined that essential oils of S. cuneifolia and S. spicigera has no negative effects on seed germination while essential oils of S. hortensis, S. thymbra and S. cilicica caused a little decrease in seed germination compared to the control. As a result of S. cuneifolia + pathogen and S. spicigera + pathogen applications, no infected cotyledons were detected, and it was determined that the disease development caused by two pathogens was prevented by 100%.

Microencapsulation of enriched extracts of two Satureja species by spray drying, evaluation of the controlled release mechanism and cytotoxicity

Background: Phenolic compounds are one of the main groups of secondary metabolites responsible for multiple biological and pharmacological properties that play a vital role in improving human health quality. Encapsulation by spray dryer creates protection toward the phenolic compounds as an efficient way for increasing product performance. Method: The phenolic compounds of Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad (SKH) and S. rechingeri Jamzad (SRH) were enriched based on adsorbent resin column chromatography and the enrichment index was confirmed by HPLC-UV analysis. Gum Arabic, carboxylated chitosan, and pectin with the optimum percentage of 1% w/w used to encapsulate SKH and SRH by the spray drying technique. Result: Encapsulation yield was 38.18 – 59.00 %, particle size ranged 2.278 - 4.689 µm, and release time was between 4.08 - 82.08 min. The gum Arabic-based capsules showed the fastest and pectin-based revealed the slowest release time. The best statistical model explained a release mechanism was Korsmeyer model. Anomalous transport was observed from all formulas except SKH-gum Arabic (case-I transport), SKH-pectin, and SRH-carboxylated-chitosan (super case-II transport). The cytotoxic activity of encapsulate SKH’s revealed reducing the viability of AGS evaluated by the MTT compared with SRH’s. Conclusion: Encapsulation by spray drying has proven to be a promising technique to improve the bioavailability, release time, and mechanism of functional polyphenolic compounds as medicines, food supplements, and food additives.