Species In Seafood Research Articles

Spotlight on the epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Vibrio species in the MENA region, 2000-2023.

Recent cholera outbreaks in many countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region have raised public health concerns and focused attention on the genus Vibrio. However, the epidemiology of Vibrio species in humans, water, and seafood is often anecdotal in this region. In this review, we screened the literature and provided a comprehensive assessment of the distribution and antibiotic resistance properties of Vibrio species in different clinical and environmental samples in the region. This review will contribute to understanding closely the real burden of Vibrio species and the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains in the MENA region. The overall objective is to engage epidemiologists, sanitarians and public health stakeholders to address this problem under the One-health ethos.

One-Pot Pretreatment Coupled to Microplasma Optical Emission Spectrometry for Field and Sensitive Determination of Inorganic Mercury and Methylmercury in Fish.

Field and sensitive analysis of mercury species in seafood is helpful to assess the risk of human exposure to mercury, but the cumbersome pretreatment process is time-consuming and laborious. Herein, a simple one-pot pretreatment system is designed for extraction, separation, and enrichment of inorganic mercury (Hg(II)) and methylmercury (MeHg) in fish, and coupled to dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) microplasma optical emission spectrometry (OES). Both Hg(II) and MeHg species in fish can be effectively extracted by tetramethylammonium hydroxide under ultrasound, then separated from the fish matrix by vapor generation and photochemical vapor generation, and finally enriched on the activated carbon electrode tips. Mercury trapped on the activated carbon electrode tips can be rapidly released to produce OES under the DBD microplasma excitation for quantitative analysis. The pretreatment and analysis of a batch of 12 samples are completed within 50 min, and the extraction efficiency of total mercury is up to 90% for 100 mg of freeze-dried fish or 86% for 1 g of fresh fish. Under the optimized conditions, the detection limits are 2 μg kg-1 for Hg(II) and 1.2 μg kg-1 for MeHg in freeze-dried fish, and precisions are 3.2% for Hg(II) and 3.9% for MeHg. The present method is applied to the analysis of the certified reference material and real marine fishes, giving rise to spiked recoveries of 95-103%. The present system hardly leads to MeHg and Hg(II) transforming into each other during extraction, providing a simple, convenient, and low-cost analytical tool to evaluate the risk of mercury species in fish.

A broad-applicability method for mercury speciation in various seafoods using microwave-assisted extraction and ion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

Almost all marine organisms contain both inorganic and organic mercury, and thus it is extremely important to determine mercury species in seafood to objectively and scientifically assess the health risk posed by mercury. We herein developed a broad-applicability microwave-assisted extraction method and a robust ion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (IC-ICP-MS) method for the speciation analysis of mercury in various seafood samples including seaweeds, fishes and shellfishes. The extraction method has broad adaptability, it can be used to simultaneously extract mercury species from various seafood samples including seaweeds, fishes and shellfishes without altering the chemical species of mercury, with an extraction efficiency >90%. Especially, the seafood extract obtained with the extraction method can be directly used for the following IC-ICP-MS determination of mercury species without additional pretreatment. The IC-ICP-MS method used low-cost cation guard columns as the separation column, and has an instrument detection limit of 0.02-0.05 ng mL-1 for Hg2+, CH3Hg+ and C2H5Hg+. The developed extraction and IC-ICP-MS methods have been successfully used to determine Hg2+, CH3Hg+ and C2H5Hg+ in various seaweeds, fishes and shellfishes without the matrix effect, with a method detection limit of 2.4-6.0 ng g-1 dried weight, a recovery of 92-105%, and a relative standard deviation (RSD, n = 5) of less than or equal to 6%. The success of this study offers a reliable and universal approach for the speciation analysis of mercury in seafood, which may provide the database for objectively assessing the health risks of mercury in seafood and ensuring the safety of consumption of seafood.

Prevalence, Genomic Characterization, and Risk Assessment of Human Pathogenic Vibrio Species in Seafood

Pathogenic Vibrio species are largely responsible for human diseases associated with consumption of contaminated seafood. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, population densities, species diversity, and molecular characteristics of pathogenic Vibrio in various seafood commodities and the health risks associated with consumption of these contaminated commodities. Samples of finfish and shellfish (oysters and sea urchins) were collected from various regions and analyzed for Vibrio with the most-probable-number (MPN) technique. Genomic DNA of putative Vibrio isolates was analyzed by whole genome sequencing for taxonomic identification and identification of virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes. The risk of Vibrio-related illnesses due to the consumption of contaminated seafood was assessed with Risk Ranger. Populations of presumptive Vibrio were 2.6 to 4.4 log MPN/g and correlated with season; Vibrio levels were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the summer. Fifteen Vibrio isolates were identified as Vibrio alginolyticus (five isolates), Vibrio parahaemolyticus (six isolates), Vibrio harveyi (two isolates), and Vibrio diabolicus (two isolates). Two of the six V. parahaemolyticus isolates (ST 2504 and ST 2505) from oysters harbored either the tdh gene for thermostable direct hemolysin or the trh gene for thermostable direct hemolysin-related hemolysin. In addition to virulence genes, the shellfish isolates also harbored genes encoding resistance to multiple antibiotics, including tetracycline, penicillin, quinolone, and β-lactams, thus arousing concern. The risk assessment predicted that an estimated 21 cases of V. parahaemolyticus-associated gastroenteritis could occur in the general population annually due to consumption of contaminated oysters. This study highlights both the wide prevalence and diversity of Vibrio in seafood and the potential for certain strains to threaten public health.

Simple and reliable determination of total arsenic and its species in seafood by ICP-MS and HPLC-ICP-MS

Quantitative, rapid, selective and sensitive methods for the determination of total arsenic (tAs) and six arsenic compounds (arsenite (As(III)), arsenate (As(V)), arsenobetaine (AsB), arsenocholine (AsC), monomethylarsonic acid (MMA), dimethylarsonic acid (DMA)) in seafood were developed. The measurement of the tAs concentration was performed using quadrupole inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Microwave-assisted extraction was used for the isolation of arsenic species. The separation and quantification of analysed compounds were performed by ion-exchange chromatography coupled with ICP-MS in one chromatographic run using ammonium carbonate-based buffers, which has little effect on ICP-MS sensitivity compared to commonly used phosphate buffers. The results of validation and proficiency tests confirmed the reliability, robustness, and applicability of the developed procedures to various types of matrices. The proposed methods are relatively simple, time- and cost-efficient, therefore could be used to routinely analyse tAs content and arsenic species in different types of seafood at trace and ultra-trace levels.

Development of a species‐specific monoclonal antibody for rapid detection and identification of foodborne pathogen Vibrio vulnificus

AbstractVibrio vulnificus is one of the major cause of foodborne illness related to seafood consumption. This study aimed to develop monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to enable rapid detection and monitoring food contamination of this pathogen. Five groups of MAbs against V. vulnificus were generated from a mouse immunized with a clinical isolate of V. vulnificus, heat and formalin‐inactivated whole cells. The first two groups of MAbs were species‐specific to V. vulnificus, recognized all 40 isolates of the bacterium without cross‐reactivity to other Vibiro and non‐Vibrio species, but bound to different protein antigens. The MAbs in the third group recognized four of nine clinical isolates and two isolates from seafood samples and bound to lipopolysaccharide antigens. The MAbs in the fourth group bound only to all isolates of V. vulnificus and Vibrio alginolyticus, and the MAb in the fifth group was genus‐specific bound to all isolates of Vibrio species tested. Based on Dot‐enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay, the range of detection sensitivity limits of these MAbs were 105 to 107 CFU/ml, which is 10–1,000 times less than that of direct PCR detection (104 CFU/ml). However, after pre‐enrichment of an oyster sample in tryptic soy broth for 6 hr, the detection limit was improved to 1 CFU/ml. This detection sensitivity limit is comparable to that of PCR protocols, which mostly require a pre‐enrichment step in sample preparation. The sets of MAbs could provide valuable tools for simple, fast, and low‐cost detection of V. vulnificus and Vibrio species in seafood, clinical, and environmental samples.

Prevalence, detection of virulence genes and antimicrobial susceptibility of pathogen Vibrio species isolated from different types of seafood samples at "La Nueva Viga" market in Mexico City.

Some Vibrio species are important human pathogens owing to they cause infectious diseases such as gastroenteritis, wound infections, septicemia or even death. Many of these illnesses are associated with consumption of contaminated seafood. In the present study, we evaluated the presence of pathogenic Vibrio species, their virulence and antimicrobial susceptibility from 285 different kind of seafood samples from "La Nueva Viga" market in Mexico City. The PCR assay was used for amplification the vppC (collagenase), vmh (hemolysin), tlh (thermolabile hemolysin), and vvhA (hemolytic cytolysin) genes that are specific to Vibrio alginolyticus (detected in 27%), Vibrio mimicus (23.2%), Vibrio parahaemolyticus (28.8%) and Vibrio vulnificus (21.1%), respectively. Several genes encoding virulence factors were amplified. These included V. alginolyticus: pvuA (17.9%), pvsA (50%), wza and lafA (100%); V. mimicus: iut A (60%), toxR (100%); V. parahaemolyticus: pvuA (58.7%), pvsA (26.1%), wza (2.2%), and lafA (100%); and V. vulnificus: wcrA (77.5%), gmhD (57.5%), lafA (100%) and motA (30%). The antibiotic susceptibility of the Vibrio species isolates revealed that most of them were resistant to ampicillin, cephalothin and carbenicillin but susceptible to pefloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Our results indicated a high prevalence of pathogenic Vibrio species in seafood, a high presence of virulence genes and that Vibrio species continuously exposed to antibiotics, therefore, consumption of these kind of seafood carries a potential risk for foodborne illness.

Determination of total arsenic and hydrophilic arsenic species in seafood

Marine organisms are vital sources of staple and functional food but are also the major dietary route of human exposure to total arsenic. We surveyed the total arsenic content and the mass fractions of hydrophilic arsenic species from five different marine food types cutting across the food chain from microalgae, macroalgae, bivalve clam, crustaceans and finfish. Total arsenic was determined using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) while arsenic speciation analysis was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to ICP-MS as the detector. The total arsenic contents ranged from 133 ± 11 ng/g to 26,630 ± 520 ng/g. The mass fractions of inorganic arsenic (iAs), arsenobetaine (AsB), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), and the four commonly occurring arsenosugars (AsSugars) are reported. Extractable hydrophilic arsenic species accounted for 10 % (aquacultured shrimp) to 95 % (kelp) of the total arsenic. DMA was established to be a byproduct of the decomposition of AsSugars in acid extracts of samples known to contain these species.

A universal method for the speciation analysis of arsenic in various seafood based on microwave-assisted extraction and ion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

The speciation analysis of arsenic in seafood is of great significance for objectively and scientifically assessing arsenic health risks in seafood. In general, different types of seafood contain a variety of different arsenic species and have quite different matrix. Thus, the detection of arsenic species in different types of seafood required different extracting and analytical methods. In this study, a universal microwave-assisted extraction was developed to extract each arsenic species including As(V), As(III), monomethylarsonic acid (MMA), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), arsenobetaine (AsB), arsenosugars and so on in various seafood with a extraction efficiency > 95% and without altering their original species, and a universal cation exchange IC-ICP-MS (ion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) method was developed for the detection of arsenic species in various seafood (seaweed, fish, shellfish and shrimp) with a method detection limit of 8.0 ng As/g dried seafood–12.0 ng As/g dried seafood. Especially, the extract of seafood obtained with our microwave-assisted extraction can be directly used for the following IC-ICP-MS detection without any additional pretreatment. By using the extraction method and IC-ICP-MS method, we have successfully detected each arsenic species including As(V), As(III), MMA, DMA, AsB, arsenosugars and so on in seaweed, fish, shellfish and shrimp samples with a recovery of 92%–104% and a relative standard deviation (RSD, n = 5) < 5%. The developed microwave-assisted extraction method and IC-ICP-MS detection method is simple, has broad applicability, high efficiency, excellent accuracy and strong resistibility to the complicated matrix, which promising a reliable approach for objectively and scientifically assessing arsenic health risks in various seafood to ensure the consumption safety of seafood.

Detection of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus in oyster by multiplex-PCR with internal amplification control

This study developed a multiplex-polymerase chain reaction (m-PCR) method that targets the toxin genes, vvhA and vvp for Vibrio vulnificus, tdh for V. parahaemolyticus, ctx for V. cholera, to detect these three species simultaneously. A chimeric DNA consisting of a fragment of the green fluorescent protein gene (gfp) flanked by sequences of the vvhA primers was used as the internal amplification control (IAC). In the presence of these three Vibrio species, amplicons of IAC (753 bp), vvhA (505 bp), vvp (383 bp), tdh (256 bp) and ctx (167 bp) could be simultaneously detected. The accuracy of the m-PCR approach was evaluated with a Kappa index of 0.96 using 28 strains of V. vulnificus, 18 V. parahaemolyticus, 14 V. cholerae and 40 other Vibrio species and non-Vibrio strains. As little as 101 CFU/mL of these Vibrio species in spiked oyster homogenate could be detected by this m-PCR method following enrichment at 37°C for 8 h. This method can be adopted for the rapid detection of the toxigenic strains of Vibrio species in seafood.

Quantitative PCR assay for the simultaneous identification and enumeration of multiple Karenia species.

Quantitative PCR (qPCR) is the method of choice for specific detection and quantification of harmful algal bloom (HAB) species. Development of qPCR assay for simultaneous enumeration of species that frequently co-exist in HABs is required. A high sensitivity TaqMan qPCR assay, using probe and primers, located at ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA region, detecting, specifically, Karenia selliformis, K. bidigitata, and K. mikimotoi, was designed. ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA region copy numbers per Karenia cell genome were estimated to 217.697 ± 67.904, allowing cell quantification. An application of the designed methodology in field samples has been conducted, and it showed high sensitivity (detection of around 10-1 cell/100 mg of bivalve mollusk tissue, equivalent to about 20 copies of the target sequence). We suggest that the optimized method could contribute to early detection of three closely related Karenia species in seafood cultivating areas to promote control quality, guarantee a fast and effective intervention, and improve public health prevention.

Determination and characterization of metal nanoparticles in clams and oysters.

With the extensive application of nanotechnology, metal nanoparticles (MNPs) have been widely used, thus are universally detected in the environment. This has caused increasingly concerns due to their toxicity and the potential health risks they pose to humans. In this work, the concentrations and particle size distributions of MNPs and concentrations of associated metal ionic species in shellfish seafood (clams and oysters) were investigated using single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (sp-ICP-MS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The MNPs in the clam and oyster tissues were extracted via an alkaline digestion method with a recovery rate of 95.9% (for gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)). Then total concentrations of 41 metal elements were measured in the two types of seafood, of which 20 were selected for sp-ICP-MS analysis. The results showed that 5 types of MNPs were detectable in clams (Y, La, Ce, Pr, Gd) and 5 types of MNPs were detectable in oysters (Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd). Size distributions of MNPs in clams and oysters were in the range of 35-55nm and 30-65nm, respectively. Nanoparticle concentrations in clams and oysters ranged from 0.6 to 37.7ng/g and 4.2-19.7ng/g, and accounted for 3.4%-50% and 5.5%-46% of the total metal content, respectively. Based on this analysis, the health risks of metals in the two kinds of seafood were evaluated by comparing the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) with limits recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO)/Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). These results provide important information about the presence of metal nanoparticles in seafood and, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the nanoparticles of rare earth elements have been detected and reported in bivalve mollusc tissues.

Organoarsenicals in Seafood: Occurrence, Dietary Exposure, Toxicity, and Risk Assessment Considerations - A Review.

Diet, especially seafood, is the main source of arsenic exposure for humans. The total arsenic content of a diet offers inadequate information for assessment of the toxicological consequences of arsenic intake, which has impeded progress in the establishment of regulatory limits for arsenic in food. Toxicity assessments are mainly based on inorganic arsenic, a well-characterized carcinogen, and arsenobetaine, the main organoarsenical in seafood. Scarcity of toxicity data for organoarsenicals, and the predominance of arsenobetaine as an organic arsenic species in seafood, has led to the assumption of their nontoxicity. Recent toxicokinetic studies show that some organoarsenicals are bioaccessible and cytotoxic with demonstrated toxicities like that of pernicious trivalent inorganic arsenic, underpinning the need for speciation analysis. The need to investigate and compare the bioavailability, metabolic transformation, and elimination from the body of organoarsenicals to the well-established physiological consequences of inorganic arsenic and arsenobetaine exposure is apparent. This review provides an overview of the occurrence and assessment of human exposure to arsenic toxicity associated with the consumption of seafood.

Reference measurements of mercury species in seafood using isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

Species-specific isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SS ID ICP-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were used to obtain accurate and SI traceable results for methyl mercury in seafood samples such as clam, oyster and fish homogenate. The mass fractions of (62.3 ± 2.3) μg kg−1, (5.44 ± 0.36) μg kg−1 and (531 ± 19) μg kg−1 were obtained for MeHg (as Hg) in IAEA-461, IAEA-470 and IAEA-476, respectively. Direct isotope dilution mass spectrometry was performed for total mercury content then the content of inorganic mercury in selected samples was obtained by calculation. It was found that the content of inorganic Hg in IAEA-461, IAEA-470, and IAEA-476 was as: 328 μg kg−1, 16 μg kg−1, and 62 μg kg−1, respectively. Mathematical modelling of analytical procedure and evaluation of all parameters influencing final results were adequate for validation of measurement procedure, establishing traceability and estimating expanded uncertainty. Developed procedures were successfully applied in the characterization process of fish homogenate candidate reference material and in the calculation of assigned values in the frame of IAEA-476 inter-laboratory comparison study. Compatibility between obtained results and those derived from the certification campaign, organized by International Atomic Energy Agency on the same sample matrix (<2.6 % difference) further validated performed ID ICP-MS protocols.

Determination of mercury species in seafood by liquid chrom tography - inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LC-ICP-MS)

Liquid chromatography hyphenated with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LC&amp;shy;ICP&amp;shy;MS) was investigated to simultaneously determine three mercury species (mercury methyl mercury and ethyl mercury) in seafood samples. Important parameters such as organic solvents, flow rate of the mobile phase, 2&amp;shy;mercaptoethanol concentration, extraction time and temperature were optimized. The method was validated in term of the limit of detection, limit of quantitation, repeatability, and recovery meeting the AOAC performance requirements. The method has also been validated based on the analysis of certified standard samples DORM&amp;shy;4, then applied to determine three mercury species in 30 seafood samples. Results showed that the content of mercury species was below the maximum limit according to the QCVN 8&amp;shy;2 : 2011/BYT.

Determination of Iodine Species in Seafood by Ionic Liquid–Based In-line Solid-Phase Extraction-Capillary Electrophoresis

Ionic liquid (IL)–based in-line solid-phase extraction (SPE)-capillary electrophoresis (CE) method was developed for determination of three iodine species (3,5-diiodo-l-thyronine, l-tyrosine, 3,5-diiodo-l-tyrosine) in seafood. The background electrolyte (BGE) used was 5 mM sodium tetraborate. The small SPE extractor filled with Oasis HLB sorbent was constructed and embedded 7.5 cm away from the entrance to the capillary, then the ILs were used as eluting solvents to elute analytes and separate the target compounds to improve the detection sensitivity in CE. Several parameters including the elution solvent, the elution time, pH of sample solution, and sample loading time were investigated. The LODs were 0.48 ng/mL for 3,5-diiodo-l-thyronine, 4.7 ng/mL for l-tyrosine, and 5.2 ng/mL for 3,5-diiodo-l-tyrosine under optimal experimental conditions. Compared with normal hydrodynamic injection, sensitivity enrichment factors for this enrichment strategy ranged from 11 to 9635. The in-line SPE-CE method was then applied to analyze kelp and seaweed samples, and the recoveries ranged from 87 to 117%.

A new method for the speciation of arsenic species in water, seafood and cigarette samples using an eggshell membrane

This work is based on the application of the eggshell membrane (ESM) of fresh chicken as a sorbent in a solid phase extraction procedure for arsenic speciation with detection by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The ESM can adsorb several heavy metal ions from a dilute aqueous solution with high affinity and short contact time, depending on pH and ionic characteristics. It thusly becomes a promising candidate as a solid adsorbent in extraction systems. The procedure is based on the solid phase extraction of the complex formed by As(III) with ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (APDC). Solutions of As(III) were percolated through the eggshell membrane-filled minicolumn (ESM). Then, the analyte contained in the sorbent was desorbed by a 4.0 mol L−1 HNO3/ethanol solution (2:3). The influence of variables such as eluent, sample volume, pH effect, APDC volume, eluent volume, atomization, pyrolysis temperature, and sample flow was studied. Under optimized conditions, the method presented a limit of detection and enrichment factor of 0.01 μg L−1 and 17, respectively. Arsenic speciation was also tested because As(V) does not react with APDC, but is retained by ESM. Thus, the determination of total arsenic and As(V) allows the determination of both species. The procedure was applied to the determination of arsenic species in water, seafood, and cigarette samples.

Speciation analysis of arsenic compounds in seafood by ion chromatography-atomic fluorescence spectrometry

Ion chromatography-ultra violet-hydride generation-Atomic Florescence Spectrometry was applied to detect 5 arsenic species in seafoods. The arsenic species studied include arsenobetaine (AsB), arsenite (As(III)), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), monomethylarsonic acid (MMA), and arsenate (As(V)), which were extracted from samples using 2% formic acid. Gradient elution using 33 mmol L−1 CH3COONH4 and 15 mmol L−1 Na2CO3 with 10 mL CH3CH2OH at pH 8.4 allowed the chromatographic separation of all the species on a Hamilton PRP-X100 anion-exchange column in less than 8 min. In this study, an ultrasound extraction method was used to extract arsenic species from seafood. The extraction efficiency was good and the recoveries from spiked samples were in the range of 72.6%–109%; the precision between sample replicates was higher than 3.6% for all determinations. The detection limits were 3.543 μg L−1 for AsB, 0.426 μg L−1 for As(III), 0.216 μg L−1 for DMA, 0.211 μg L−1 for MMA, and 0.709 μg L−1 for As(V), and the linear coefficients were greater than 0.999. We also developed an application of this method for the determination of arsenic species in bonito, Euphausia superba, and Enteromorpha with satisfactory results. Therefore, it was confirmed that this method was appropriate for the detection of arsenic species in seafood.

Human exposure to organic arsenic species from seafood.

Seafood, including finfish, shellfish, and seaweed, is the largest contributor to arsenic (As) exposure in many human populations. In contrast to the predominance of inorganic As in water and many terrestrial foods, As in marine-derived foods is present primarily in the form of organic compounds. To date, human exposure and toxicological assessments have focused on inorganic As, while organic As has generally been considered to be non-toxic. However, the high concentrations of organic As in seafood, as well as the often complex As speciation, can lead to complications in assessing As exposure from diet. In this report, we evaluate the presence and distribution of organic As species in seafood, and combined with consumption data, address the current capabilities and needs for determining human exposure to these compounds. The analytical approaches and shortcomings for assessing these compounds are reviewed, with a focus on the best practices for characterization and quantitation. Metabolic pathways and toxicology of two important classes of organic arsenicals, arsenolipids and arsenosugars, are examined, as well as individual variability in absorption of these compounds. Although determining health outcomes or assessing a need for regulatory policies for organic As exposure is premature, the extensive consumption of seafood globally, along with the preliminary toxicological profiles of these compounds and their confounding effect on assessing exposure to inorganic As, suggests further investigations and process-level studies on organic As are needed to fill the current gaps in knowledge.

Total Arsenic and Arsenic Species in Seaweed and Seafood Samples Determined by Ion Chromatography Coupled with Inductively Coupled End‐on‐Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry

An analytical method was developed for the extraction and determination of total arsenic and arsenic species in seafood by ion chromatography coupled with end‐on‐plasma atomic emission spectrometry. Sample preparation included a selective extraction method, and the optimization for separation and detection of arsenic species was performed by important instrumental and methodological parameters. The lack of loss or transformation of arsenic species in samples was also confirmed with the analytical method. Good recovery efficiency (98.2 ~ 99.1%) was obtained for the arsenic species with the selected extraction method. In this study, several kinds of seafood (snow crab, red snow crab, octopus, octopus minor, and squid) and seaweed (red laver, green laver, sea tangle, sea mustard, and hizikia) were investigated with the analytical method. All samples were first dried and ground to fine powder before use. The main arsenic species found in these seafoods was non‐toxic arsenobetain (AsB). Its highest concentration was found in red snow crab samples (152 ± 4 mg/kg, dry weight). Other arsenic species (As3+, As5+, monomethylarsonic acid [MMA] and dimethylarsinic acid [DMA]) were not detected in these seafood samples. The major arsenic species found in hizikia samples was As5+. Its concentration was 34.0 ± 0.4 mg/kg (dry weight). Arsenic species (As3+, As5+, MMA, DMA, and AsB) were not found in green laver, sea tangle, red laver, or sea mustard samples.