Caatinga Species Research Articles

Insect galls of the Chapada Diamantina, Rio de Contas, Bahia, Brazil

We surveyed insect galls and their host plants in areas of Caatinga and Cerrado in the municipality of Rio de Contas, in the extreme south of the Chapada Diamantina (Bahia state), between 703 and 1,897 m altitude, in order to contribute to the knowledge and conservation of local biodiversity. The survey was conducted in eight locations, adopting the random walking methodology for sampling, four in Caatinga and four in Cerrado, covering distinct phytophysiognomies (cerrado sensu stricto, gallery forest, shrubby caatinga, riparian forest, and rocky field). Eighty-four different insect gall morphotypes were reported, 48 (57.14%) of them on 42 host species in Cerrado and 36 (42.86%) on 24 host species in Caatinga. Most galls occurred on leaves (48.72%) and were globoid (53.76%), glabrous (52.92%), isolated (55.44%), usually one-chambered (61.32%), and brown (25.2%). The gall-inducing insects identified belonged to Lepidoptera (n = 1), Thysanoptera (n = 1), Hemiptera (n = 2), and Diptera (Cecidomyiidae) (n = 16). This was the first inventory of galls in the Chapada Diamantina, so all records are new for the region. We also recorded the first occurrences of galls on two Cerrado plant species and on two in the Caatinga. We found a significant positive correlation between gall richness and plant species richness, suggesting that radiation of gall-inducing insects may be associated with plant species richness.

Psidium schenckianum (Myrtaceae): lectotypification, a new synonym and notes on a typical Caatinga species

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Technical feasibility of the use of topsoil in the composition of substrates of Caatinga forest species

Mining generates great environmental impacts, in addition to a large amount of waste. In order to comply with environmental legislation, the production of seedlings is one of the actions carried out, which requires a large volume of substrates, generally commercial. The topsoil it is a residue with physical-chemical characteristics with potential for agricultural use, present in large quantities, reaching 33 thousand m3. This research aimed to know the technical feasibility of topsoil added to commercial substrate for the production of seedlings of four native Caatinga species. The experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design, in a 5 x 4 factorial model, with five topsoil levels (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) and four species [‘Canafístula’ (Peltophorum dubium), ‘Farinha Seca’ (Albizia hasslerii), ‘Timbaúba’ (Enterolobium contortisiliquum) and ‘Ipê Branco’ (Tabebuia roseo-alba)]. Considering the Dickson quality index, for the species ‘Canafístula’ and ‘Ipê Branco’, 74.1 and 36.1% are the maximum limits of topsoil and, for ‘Farinha Seca’ and ‘Timbaúba’, up to 100% can be used. In general, the addition of topsoil to the substrate will allow savings of 77% in substrate costs, making its use in the production of forest seedlings economically viable and environmentally correct.

Indigofera morroensis (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae): A New Species from the Drylands of Northeastern Brazil

Abstract— Indigofera is a genus of the tribe Indigofereae (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), with approximately 750 species distributed across tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In Brazil, the genus is associated mostly with the seasonally dry biomes of Caatinga and Cerrado, where 12 out of the 13 species recorded in Brazil occur. A close examination of the morphological variation in the Caatinga species showed that more than one species could be identified among the specimens referred to as I. blanchetiana. We thus propose the new species I. morroensis, which is distinguishable from I. blanchetiana by its habit, the number, shape, and hairiness of leaflets, and shape of the fruit. Indigofera morroensis occurs on sand dunes of the Morro do Chapéu municipality in Bahia state and its conservation status was assessed as Endangered. We provide the description, illustration, taxonomic comments, and distribution map for this new species, as well as an identification key for the species from Northeastern Brazil, including those that occur in the Caatinga.

Multi-temporal ecological niche modeling for bird conservation in the face of climate change scenarios in Caatinga, Brazil.

Global shifts in climatic patterns have been recorded over the last decades. Such modifications mainly correspond to increased temperatures and rainfall regime changes, which are becoming more variable and extreme. We aimed to evaluate the impact of future changes in climatic patterns on the distribution of 19 endemic or threatened bird taxa of the Caatinga. We assessed whether current protected areas (PAs) are adequate and whether they will maintain their effectiveness in the future. Also, we identified climatically stable areas that might work as refugia for an array of species. We observed that 84% and 87% of the bird species of Caatinga analyzed in this study will face high area losses in their predicted range distribution areas in future scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, respectively). We also observed that the current PAs in Caatinga are ineffective in protecting these species in both present and future scenarios, even when considering all protection area categories. However, several suitable areas can still be allocated for conservation, where there are vegetation remnants and a high amount of species. Therefore, our study paves a path for conservation actions to mitigate current and future extinctions due to climate change by choosing more suitable protection areas.

Seasonal Semideciduous Forest and Cerrado Floristic composition of fragments in Serra das Flores, Ibiapaba Plateau, Ceará, Brazil

Abstract The state of Ceará is located in the Northeast region of Brazil, which has a varied climatic condition, being predominantly formed by Caatinga vegetation, and there may also be remnants of Cerrado and other Semideciduous Seasonal Forest. The objective of this work was to carry out a floristic survey in vegetation fragments of Semideciduous Seasonal Forest and Cerrado found in the part of Serra das Flores located in the municipality of Viçosa do Ceará. Para tal, foram realizadas 12 coletas na área ao longo do ano de 2019. 220 species were recorded, belonging to 154 genera and 62 families. The most representative families in this area were Fabaceae (38 spp.), Rubiaceae (15 spp.) and Myrtaceae (nine spp.). The predominant habit were herbs and shrubs. The richest fragment was the Cerrado with 171 species, with the Typical Cerrado (104 spp.) phytophysiognomy being the most representative. Of the total species, most are native, 16 are new records for Ceará, 12 are endemic to the Caatinga domain and seven are endemic to the Cerrado. Thus, the present site presents a high heterogeneity of species, in addition to varied habits, new records and endemic species of Cerrado and Caatinga.

Temperatures and substrates on the germination and vigor of seeds of Pilosocereus catingicola subsp. salvadorensis in the Caatinga biome of Paraíba

The Caatinga biome is presented in the vegetation where the Brazilian semiarid region predominates, with a great variety of native species, and facheiro is one of the most important species because of its wide range in the semiarid region in northeastern Brazil. Therefore, the knowledge of the germinative behavior of the Caatinga species is essential to subsidize conservationist actions in this ecosystem. This study aimed to determine the effect of temperature and substrate on the germination and vigor of facheiro’s seeds. These seeds were obtained from ripe fruits collected in three localities of the Agreste of Paraíba: Arara, Bananeiras, and Boa Vista. After extraction, the seeds were placed to dry on paper for one week in a laboratory environment. Subsequently, the experiment was started by testing four temperatures: 20, 25, 30, and 20-30 °C. The germination test was conducted with four replications of 50 seeds distributed in “gerbox” boxes and placed in bio-oxygen demand (BOD) chambers using as a substrate the germitest paper, with a photoperiod of 12 hours. The statistical design was randomized in a 3 × 4 factorial arrangement (3 localities and 4 temperatures). A significant effect was observed for populations and substrates. The best substrate for germination was the germitest, while the substrate vermiculite presented a good performance, and the substrate soil presented low germination. Therefore, seeds presented the best vigor in the germitest paper, mainly with a temperature of 25 °C where the best performance for all localities was found. The vigor of seeds in the localities of Bananeiras and Boa Vista, temperatures of 25, 30, and 20-30 °C, and substrate germitest paper provided the highest vigor. The germitest substrate is the recommended substrate for the germination of the species, maximizing its physiological potential and being able to accelerate conservation projects for the species.

Anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties from Caatinga plant species: how they do it? – A literature review

Being one of the phytogeographic domains exclusively present in Brazil, the Caatinga occupies approximately 11% of the Brazilian territory and is one of the drylands with the most diversity around the world. The Caatinga is home to a floristic variety that carries a plurality of bioactive compounds capable of reversing physiological disorders. Many bioactive products from Caatinga species have anti-inflammatory and healing potential. The present review aimed to summarize the works that explored the anti-inflammatory and healing activities of plant species present in this phytogeographic domain. The articles were selected from the databases: Elsevier, Springer links, and PubMed to build the present review. In total, 39 plant species were identified, which were studied about their biological potential with experimental assays, and we’ve discussed how its compounds are related to the anti-inflammatory and healing activities. Our results highlight that the most studied product obtained from those plant species is the plant extract, and still those studies aren’t clear about its phytochemical profile. On the other hand, the research focused on plant oils provides a better understanding of how Caatinga plant species promote anti-inflammatory and wound healing action.

Hypolipidemic potential and safety profile of the ethanolic extract and flour of the peel of Passiflora Cincinnata Mast. (Passifloraceae) in mice

Passiflora cincinnata Mast. is described as a native Caatinga species, used by nutritional and medicinal purposes, although there are still few studies and pharmacological data related to this species. This paper aims to evaluate the safety profile and hypolipidemic potential of the fruit peel of this species in mice. It was analyzed the chemical composition of ethanolic extract (EtOH-Pc) by HPLC-DAD-MS/MS, and the organic and inorganic composition of flour (MF-Pc). Also were evaluated the acute toxicity, the lipid-lowering potential of these samples, through of a pretreatment (oral: 100 and 200 mg/kg), and a single treatment with the same doses, after hyperlipidemic induction with triton WR-1339, using as animal model Swiss Mus musculus mice, besides histopathological analysis. The presence of flavonoids in the extract was confirmed, mainly C-glycosides, and antioxidant minerals and pectin, in flour. No clinical signs of toxicity or death were reported in the study. In the hyperlipidemia study model used, the analyzed substances, at all doses, notably decreased the lipid levels of TC, TG, LDL-c and VLDL-c and increase the HDL-c levels in the induced hyperlipidemic mice (p < 0.05). The results of the histopathological analysis showed that in the group only induced was identified the discrete presence of hepatic steatosis, in 2 animals at the analysis of 24 h, not being visualized in the groups treated with the substances evaluated. The results obtained in the present study suggest a hypolipidemic potential of the extract and flour, obtained from the fruit peel of Passiflora cincinnata Mast.

Chemical composition of Libidibia ferrea var. ferrea aqueous extract for antimicrobial purpose and cytogenotoxicity on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Libidibia ferrea (Mart. Ex Tul) L. P. Queiroz (Fabaceae) is a typical Caatinga species, 53 commonly known as “Brazilian ironwood” and “leopard tree” and has been used in folk 54 medicine in the treatment of several diseases such as anemia, ulcer, hypertension, 55 diabetes, and antimicrobial agent. However, its adverse effects on human health are not 56 entirely known. The present work aimed to investigate the chemical composition, 57 antibiofilm formation, and cytogenotoxicity potential of Libidia ferrea aqueous extract 58 (AELf). Phytochemical screening, chromatographic analyses, and fractionation were 59 performed to characterize AELf. Additionally, the AELf effect on Staphylococcus aureus 60 biofilm formation was also investigated. Also, twelve extract concentrations were tested 61 by the MTT assay to verify cytotoxicity, while genotoxic (cytokinesis-block 62 micronucleus assay - CBMN) evaluations were carried out on PBMC cells using three 63 different concentrations (10, 20, and 30 mg/mL). The phytochemical analysis revealed 64 the presence of flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, leucoanthocyanidins, and hydrolyzable 65 tannins in higher concentrations. As also, AELf was able to inhibit biofilm formation (≥ 66 50%) on the tested strain by up to 55.3% (44.7 ± 7.8) and 71.1% (28.9 ± 3.4) at 67 concentrations 1.25 mg/mL and 2.5 mg/mL, respectively. AELf concentrations used in 68 the MTT and CBMN assays showed no cytotoxic and genotoxicity activity. The aqueous 69 extract of L. ferrea var. ferrea fruit presents good potential for the future development of 70 antimicrobial products since concentrations around 2.5 mg/mL showed antibiofilm 71 activity. Additionally, the aqueous extract has a good safety profile.

DNA damage as indicator of the environmental vulnerability of bats in Brazil's Caatinga drylands.

Brazil's Caatinga drylands is under extensive environmental deterioration, with 38% of its natural cover already lost. There is a need for a better understanding of the effects of such degradation on Caatinga's rich and singular biota. Bats form a large part of this biota, and are pointed as good bioindicators. Here, we used the micronucleus test-an easy-to-use, accessible and cost-effective in vivo approach-to detect DNA damage in cells from bats of different species and feeding habits in three protected areas in the Caatinga, comparing them with samples from an industrial sugarcane plantation. We hypothesized that environmental disturbance would reflect in DNA damage, with lower levels of damage in the less disturbed protected areas. The frequency of micronucleated cells differed significantly between sites and feeding habits (carnivores > insectivores > frugivores > nectarivores > hematophagous) but did not differ between sexes. Alarmingly, the highest levels of DNA damage were in two strictly protected areas (Seridó and Raso da Catarina Ecological Stations). Glossophaga and Anoura were the genera with more damaged cells, and had, respectively, 1.48 and 3.53 times more micronucleated cells (average of 19.33 and 22.67 cells, respectively) than individuals from the same genera from the area with least damaged cells (average of 7.80 and 5.00 cells, respectively). Our analysis is a warning call for an in-depth investigation on the effects of both genotoxic contamination and environmental stressors on bats and other species in Brazil's Caatinga, including the role that historical human-induced processes-like the intense use of agrochemicals-may have had in the region.

Drought response strategies for deciduous species in the semiarid Caatinga derived from the interdependence of anatomical, phenological and bio-hydraulic attributes

Deciduous species from semiarid environments have different strategies for overcoming seasonal drought. However, these strategies are little explored for semiarid regions, particularly due to the lack of studies that integrate morpho-physiological mechanisms, including the vulnerability of the hydraulic system. In this work, we seek to integratively analyze the physiological, anatomical, hydraulic, phenological and wood density aspects of four deciduous species, representing opposite functional groups: (1) high wood density (HWD), (2) low wood density (LWD), from the Caatinga, a Brazilian semiarid region. The analyses covered leaf phenology, stomatal conductance, water potential, and chlorophyll content, as well as the anatomy and hydraulic architecture of branches and leaves. As predicted, the interrelationship between anatomy, physiology, and phenology was crucial to enhance the understanding of drought resistance strategies. LWD species tend to avoid drought, while HWD species tend to be more tolerant to it. LWD species showed an anticipated leaf fall to the dry season, in addition to a potential hydraulic conductivity 66.8% higher than HWD species, as well as a higher stomatal density (24.8%). However, LWD species were approximately 50% potentially more vulnerable than HWD species. The leaves of HWD species had gelatinous fibers surrounding the central rib, indicating traits of mechanical tolerance to dehydration. On the other hand, LWD species use preventive strategies to keep their water potential high during the dry period. These results highlight the importance of hydraulic architecture in the interrelationship of biological factors that determine the plant's drought stress performance as a function of the functional group.

Angiosperm Diversity in the Semiarid Region of Ceará State, Brazil, with Emphasis on Caatinga Species

Angiosperm Diversity in the Semiarid Region of Ceará State, Brazil, with Emphasis on Caatinga Species

Metabolic and Redox Biomarkers in Skeletal Muscle Underlie Physiological Adaptations of Two Estivating Anuran Species in a South American Semi-arid Environment.

The upregulation of endogenous antioxidants (i.e., preparation for oxidative stress, POS) is part of the biochemical responses underlying the adaptation of animals to adverse environments. Despite the phylogenetic diversity of animals in which POS has been described, most studies focus on animals under controlled laboratory conditions. To address this limitation, we have recently assessed the redox metabolism in the skeletal muscle of Proceratophrys cristiceps estivating under natural settings in the Caatinga. Here, we analyzed biochemical biomarkers in the muscle of another Caatinga species, Pleurodema diplolister, during the rainy (active) and dry (estivating frogs) seasons. We aimed to determine whether P. diplolister enhances its antioxidants during estivation under field conditions and to identify any effect of species on the biochemical responses of P. diplolister and P. cristiceps associated with estivation. To do so, we measured the activities of representative enzymes of intermediary metabolism and antioxidant systems, as well as glutathione and protein carbonyl levels, in the skeletal muscle of P. diplolister. Our findings revealed the suppression of oxidative metabolism and activation of antioxidant enzymes in estivating P. diplolister compared with active specimens. No changes in oxidative damage to proteins were observed and estivating P. diplolister had lower levels of disulfide glutathione (GSSG) and disulfide-to-total glutathione ratio (GSSG/tGSH) than those observed in active individuals. When data for P. diplolister and P. cristiceps were assembled and analyzed, significant effects of species were detected on the activities of metabolic enzymes (citrate synthase, isocitric dehydrogenase, malic enzyme, and creatine kinase) and antioxidant enzymes (catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione transferase), as well as on GSSG/tGSH ratio. Such effects might underlie the physiological and behavioral differences between these two species that share the same microhabitat and survival strategy (i.e., to estivate) during the dry season. Despite some peculiarities, which reflect the physiological diversity of the mechanisms associated with estivation in the Brazilian Caatinga, both P. diplolister and P. cristiceps seem to balance the suppression of oxidative pathways, the maintenance of the capacity of oxygen-independent pathways, and the activation of endogenous antioxidants to preserve muscle function and be ready to resume activity whenever the unpredictable rainy period arrives.

Alelopatia de espécies da Caatinga

Para que a implementação de sistemas agroflorestais na Caatinga e de projetos de recuperação de áreas degradadas sejam práticas exitosas, devem ser considerados os efeitos alelopáticos que estarão envolvidos no sistema, pois os mesmos determinam a composição florística e a predominância das espécies vegetais. Esta revisão narrativa de caráter qualitativo foi realizada para obter melhor conhecimento sobre a alelopatia das espécies da Caatinga. Considerou-se: (a) Fatores que influenciam o efeito alelopático: constituintes químicos; pH e potencial osmótico; solvente de extração; órgão vegetal; preparação física das partes vegetais; temperatura de extração do extrato; sinergismo; concentração do extrato; avaliação do efeito alelopático; (b) Fatores que influenciam na quantidade e qualidade de metabólitos secundários: domesticação da espécie vegetal; características físicas e fisiológicas das sementes da espécie alvo; época do ano; horário de coleta; estresse e local de coleta; interações entre a planta e os microrganismos presentes no solo; substâncias alelopáticas (Inibição ou estímulo?). Entre as possibilidades de investigações destaca-se o desenvolvimento de estudos de processos alelopáticos com espécies arbóreas nativas com o objetivo de determinar quais são as espécies sinérgicas entre si, com capacidade de favorecerem o sucesso na recuperação de áreas degradadas e no manejo sustentável. Averiguar de quais maneiras as condições de estresses (hídrico, salino, térmico, luminoso e nutricional) afetam a quantidade e a qualidade dos metabólitos secundários. Pesquisas podem simular o efeito da serapilheira das diferentes espécies da Caatinga sobre a germinação e desenvolvimento de outras espécies a serem usadas em programas de reflorestamento e em sistemas agrosilvipastoris.

Cytogenetic analysis of nuclear abnormalities in the erythrocytes of gecko lizards (Phyllopezus periosus) collected in a semi-arid region of northeast Brazil: Possible effects of natural background radioactivity

High natural-background radioactivity levels occur in the semi-arid region of the State of Rio Grande do Norte, northeastern Brazil. We have studied the lizard Phyllopezus periosus, an endemic species of the Brazilian caatinga with saxicolous habitat, as a bioindicator of environmental quality. Specimens were collected in three areas, an environmental protection area and two areas recognized as having high natural background radiation, one of these being a mining area. Level of metals and gamma radiation emitters present in the water sources potentially used by the lizards were measured. The biological endpoints assessed were micronuclei and nuclear abnormalities in blood samples. Significant differences in background radioactivity levels were found among the assessed areas. Statistically significant differences in micronuclei and nuclear abnormality frequencies were seen, among the study areas and a relationship between radioactivity level and genetic damage was observed.

Allometric equations to estimate aboveground biomass of Dalbergia cearensis species in the Brazilian seasonally dry tropical forest

The semiarid savannas, in particular the Caatinga Biome, are important components of the terrestrial carbon cycle in terms of global carbon storage. Despite this importance, little information is available regarding biomass production potential of caatinga species. The objective of the study was to develop allometric equations to estimate aboveground biomass of Dalbergia cearensis Ducke trees. The semi-destructive method was used to collect samples in which the diameter at breast height (D), wood density (ρ), and tree height (H) were the aboveground dry biomass (AGB) estimation variables. The research was conducted in three different localities of the semiarid region in the state of Ceará, Brazil. Fresh biomass measurement was divided in two parts: trimmed fresh biomass and untrimmed fresh biomass. Measurements were taken for 30 trees. Height, trunk diameter, and branch diameters were measured for each individual. Leaf and small branch aliquots were taken. The volume of branch aliquots was utilized to calculate wood density. Tree dry biomass was obtained by adding trimmed dry biomass and untrimmed dry biomass (AGB, in kg). In all, eight allometric equations were developed for D. cearensis and tested for goodness-of-fit statistics. The best allometric equations were selected based on each model’s performance statistics (R2-adj, RSE, and AIC). Of the eight regression models developed and tested to estimate aboveground biomass of Dalbergia cearensis trees, six attained acceptable performance statistics. The regression model for D. cearensis that utilized the single compound predictive variables DH (model 1) was the most robust, followed by the model using single compound variables ρDH (model 2), and multiple variables D + H (model 3). The methodology applied in this study can be adopted to estimate biomass and volume of a broader set of other species from the Brazilian seasonally dry tropical forest.

Composition of Caatinga Species Under Anthropic Disturbance and Its Correlation With Rainfall Partitioning

Abstract The vegetation structure is a good indicator of the conservation condition of an ecosystem, since it reflects alterations caused by anthropic action. This study proposes to analyze the phytosociological aspects of the Caatinga domain under anthropic disturbance and their correlations with hydrological variables. Twenty-five 400 m 2 plots were sampled in the municipality of Floresta - PE, Brazil. Phytosociological parameters such as density, frequency and dominance were calculated. The seasonality of plant area index was analyzed for six species. The association between structural characteristics and hydrological variables (throughfall, stemflow and interception loss) in the species was evaluated by multivariate analysis. A total of 930 individuals, six families and 10 species were recorded. The abundance of the species Cenostigma pyramidale in the area may be an indicator of the degree of change in the vegetation. The structural characteristics of the species revealed little association with rainfall partitioning.

Leaf deciduousness and flowering of woody caatinga species

We determined the distribution (FDI), duration (FDU), and peak (FPE) of flowering in woody deciduous (DE) and evergreen (EV) species of the Caatinga with available data in the literature. Possible relations were established between leaf persistence and reproductive phenology throughout the year. The FDI indicated the relative number of species bearing flowers in each month, and the FDU denoted the number of months each species showed flowers. We defined the FPE as the four consecutive months with the highest number of species in flower. DE and EV did not show significant differences in FDI and FDU, probably due to the inability to sustain reproductive and vegetative annexes of woody axes simultaneously during the dry period. Some DE species showed flowering during the dry period in a crown free of leaves. EV flowering occurred outside the dry period. Flowering during the dry season in DE may happen due to water accumulated inside the plant body. FPE in EV during the transition between dry-rainy periods may indicate the ability to capture the first rain from all the plant body surface, covering the hydric demand of full foliage and folded reproductive buds anticipating the flowering in DE. This resulted in different values of FPE between DE and EV.

Coconut powder and fiber as substrate components for the production seedlings of caatinga species

A viable alternative for the final disposal of Cocos nucifera L. waste is its use in the production of substrates to grow seedlings of vegetal species. We carried out an experiment at the Federal Institute of Ceará, Quixadá campus, to assess the technical viability of this alternative. During the experiment, seedlings of Caatinga species (Libidibia ferrea, Cenostigma pyramidale, and Amburana cearenses) were planted in the following treatments: T0 - 70% soil + 30% bovine manure, T1 - 70% soil + 20% bovine manure + 10% coconut powder, and T2 - 70% soil + 20% bovine manure + 10% coconut fiber. In each treatment, we used ten seedlings per species, in a completely randomized design. First, we calculated the percentage of emergence, then, monthly, we measured the height and diameter of seedlings. After four months of the experiment, we analyzed the investment in morphometric characteristics. The use of coconut waste favored the emergence percentage of L. ferrea and C. pyramidale, but not A. cearenses. The presence of coconut powder provided an increase in maximum height and diameter, primary root length, wood density, and dry matter content in L. ferrea seedlings, and a higher dry matter content in the wood and secondary roots of C. pyramidale seedlings. Thus, we concluded that the use of coconut waste, mainly powder, has positive or neutral effects on the growth of L. ferrea and C. pyramidale seedlings, besides being an environmentally suitable alternative for the final disposal of this material.