Specialty Mental Health Services Research Articles

Cultural pathways to psychosis care: Patient and caregiver narratives from Puebla, Mexico.

The current study used the McGill Illness Narrative Interview (MINI) to explore patients' (n = 6) and caregivers' (n = 3) narratives about how they identified and sought care for psychosis. Participants were recruited from an outpatient clinic at the Hospital Psiquiátrico Dr. Rafael Serrano, a public psychiatric hospital in Puebla, Mexico. All participants consented to complete semi-structured interviews in Spanish. Thematic analyses were used to inductively identify common themes in participants' narratives. The results indicated that during the initial symptom onset, most participants noticed the presence of hallucinations but did not seek help for this hallmark symptom. Participants described seeking care only when they or their ill relative exhibited escalating aggressive behaviors or physical symptoms that were interpreted as common medical problems. As participants became connected to specialty mental health services, they began to develop a conceptualization of psychosis as a disorder of aggression. For some participants, this conceptualization of psychosis as an illness of aggression contributed to their ambivalence about the diagnosis. These results can be understood using a cultural scripts framework, which suggests that cultural norms are influenced by collective understandings of normalcy and valorization of behaviors. Implications for community campaigns are discussed.

Embedding Counselors in Student Health Centers: Exploring Challenges to Implementing the Primary Care Behavioral Health Model

ABSTRACT Embedding counselors in various campus locations has been one strategy to address the student mental health crisis. The aim of this study was to evaluate challenges to implementing the primary care behavioral health (PCBH) model, in which behavioral health counselors (BHCs) are embedded within the college health center, and to explore characteristics associated with differing levels of PCBH fidelity. Seventy-one BHCs working in college health centers completed the online fidelity survey. Most respondent scores denoted moderate or strong fidelity to the PCBH model. Psychologists showed better adherence to autonomous clinical aspects of PCBH while social workers/counselors showed better adherence to collaborative aspects of PCBH. Overall findings suggest fidelity to PCBH by BHCs in college health is driven by independent clinical activity more than interdisciplinary collaboration. Strategies for developing and evaluating a PCBH program that complements the specialty mental health services offered through counseling centers are discussed.

Mental Health Care Use by Ethnicity and Preferred Language in a National Cohort of Community Health Center Patients.

Disparities in U.S. mental health care by race and ethnicity have long been documented. The authors sought to compare specialty mental health service use among non-Hispanic White, English-preferring Hispanic, and Spanish-preferring Hispanic patients who accessed care in community health centers (CHCs). Retrospective electronic medical records data were extracted for patients ages ≥18 years who received care in 2012-2020 at a national CHC network. Zero-inflated Poisson regression models were used to estimate the likelihood of receiving mental health services, which was compared with expected annual rates of mental health service use. Of the 1,498,655 patients who received care at a CHC during the study, 14.4% (N=215,098) received any specialty mental health services. English- and Spanish-preferring Hispanic patients were less likely to have had a mental health visit (OR=0.69, 95% CI=0.61-0.77, and OR=0.65, 95% CI=0.54-0.78, respectively). Compared with non-Hispanic White patients, Spanish-preferring Hispanic patients had an estimated annualized rate of 0.59 (95% CI=0.46-0.76) mental health visits. Among patients who were likely to receive specialty mental health services, Spanish-preferring patients had a significantly lower rate of mental health care use. Although overall access to mental health care is improving, unequal access to recurring specialty mental health care remains among patients who do not prefer to use English.

A Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial of Primary Care Treatment Integrating Motivation and Exposure Treatment (PC-TIME) in Veterans With PTSD and Harmful Alcohol Use

Individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often engage in harmful alcohol use. These co-occurring conditions are associated with negative health consequences and disability. PTSD and harmful drinking are typically experienced as closely related—thus treatments that target both simultaneously are preferred by patients. Many individuals with PTSD and harmful alcohol use receive primary care services but encounter treatment barriers in engaging in specialty mental health and substance use services. A pilot randomized controlled trial of a brief integrated treatment for PTSD and harmful drinking versus primary care treatment as usual (PC-TAU) took place in three U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) primary care clinics. The intervention (primary care treatment integrating motivation and exposure [PC-TIME]) combines motivational interviewing to reduce alcohol use and brief prolonged exposure for PTSD delivered over five brief sessions. Participants (N = 63) were veterans with PTSD and harmful drinking. Multilevel growth curve modeling examined changes in drinking (average number of drinks per drinking day and percentage of heavy drinking days) and self-reported PTSD severity at baseline, 8, 14, and 20 weeks. Participants reported high satisfaction with PC-TIME and 70% (n = 23) completed treatment. As hypothesized, a significantly steeper decrease in self-reported PTSD severity and heavy drinking was evident for participants randomized to PC-TIME compared with PC-TAU. Contrary to expectations, no significant posttreatment differences in PTSD diagnoses were observed. PC-TIME participants were less likely to exceed National Institute for Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA) guidelines for harmful alcohol use posttreatment compared with PC-TAU participants. PC-TIME is a promising brief, primary care-based treatment for individuals with co-occurring PTSD and harmful alcohol use. A full-scale randomized clinical trial is needed to fully test its effectiveness.

Development and Initial Testing of a Brief, Integrated Intervention Aimed at Reducing Heavy Alcohol Use and PTSD among Military Veterans in Primary Care.

There is a need for integrated treatment approaches that address heavy alcohol use and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) concurrently among Veterans as interactions between heavy drinking and PTSD are frequent. Veteran engagement in specialty mental health services after referral is limited with poorer outcomes following empirically-supported, exposure-based PTSD treatments that do not explicitly address alcohol use. The current project aimed to incorporate two evidenced-based interventions: Brief Motivational Intervention (BMI) with Prolonged Exposure for Primary Care (PE-PC) for Veterans with heavy drinking and PTSD. Delphi methodology was applied to adapt an intervention protocol using subject matter expert (SME) feedback to guide the refinement of a preliminary treatment manual. The newly developed brief intervention (PC-TIME) was then tested in an open trial (n=9) to gather Veteran participant feedback to modify the treatment manual.Two rounds of SME feedback resulted in 80% agreement that manual content was "acceptable as-is" across all intervention domains. The resulting protocol is a five-session, integrated intervention with session 1 primarily focused on alcohol use reduction and sessions 2-5 consisting of narrative exposure and in-vivo exercises for PTSD symptoms with brief alcohol use check-ins. Open trial results indicated high Veteran acceptance of PC-TIME structure and content, and reductions in heavy drinking and PTSD symptoms. Preliminary data suggest PC-TIME to be a promising approach for treatment of heavy alcohol use and PTSD. A pilot randomized controlled trial is necessary to demonstrate the intervention's efficacy with Veterans in a PC setting.

Barriers to integrated primary care and specialty mental health services: Perspectives from Latinx and non-Latinx White primary care patients.

Significant disparities in access to mental health care exist in the current mental health system; integrated primary care (IPC) offers an alternative model of service delivery with initial evidence for reducing disparities. Little is known about whether, and how, IPC reduces barriers to mental health services. Here we report on a set of three studies using mixed methodology to explore the perceptions of potential recipients of care regarding barriers to accessing mental health treatment by setting (IPC or specialty mental health [SMH]) and ethnicity (Latinx or non-Latinx White). In Study 1, a main effect of setting indicated IPC patients perceived fewer barriers to accessing IPC than SMH. A setting by ethnicity interaction revealed Latinx patients perceived greater barriers to SMH than non-Latinx White patients. In Study 2, data from qualitative interviews suggested IPC patients found behavioral health treatment in IPC to be accessible and satisfactory. In Study 3, a non-treatment-seeking sample did not endorse a difference in barriers by setting or ethnicity. Overall, it appears IPC patients perceive behavioral health treatment delivered in primary care to be satisfactory, beneficial, and successful in reaching individuals with mental health need who otherwise may not receive care. Non-treatment-seeking individuals with lower psychiatric distress did not identify a difference in barriers between IPC and SMH settings. Findings are consistent with the potential of the IPC setting for reducing barriers to care, although key elements of IPC may need to be addressed to increase acceptability across all population subgroups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

What Explains Changes in Availability of Specialty Mental Health Services in Organized Settings?

Community mental health facilities often do not offer the full range of evidence-based clinical and support services for individuals with serious mental illness. This creates equity issues, particularly when low-income and minority communities have access to fewer facilities. Medicaid expansion might encourage facilities to offer these services. However, this decision may also be affected by facility ownership type or mediated by service cost structure, particularly in the absence of innovative payment mechanisms. In this study, we determine whether and how Medicaid expansion and facility ownership are associated with changes in specialty mental health service availability in organized settings over time. We estimated two-way fixed effects models using six cross-sections of the National Mental Health Services Survey and compared changes in facility-reported offering of seven services from 2010 to 2019 (54,885 facility years): psychotropic medication, case management, family psychoeducation, psychiatric emergency walk-in services, supported employment, assertive community treatment, illness management, and recovery services. We tested whether Medicaid expansion and facility ownership (private for-profit, private not-for-profit, public) were associated with differential changes in service availability from 2010 to 2019. Overall, facilities were no more likely to offer nearly all services in 2019 than 2010. We found smaller declines for psychotropic medication and psychiatric emergency walk-in services among facilities in Medicaid expansion states compared to declines in non-Medicaid expansion states (6.3 (95% CI 95% CI = 1.8-10.7) and 5.5 (95% CI = 0.2-10.8) percentage points respectively). For-profit facilities experienced the largest declines in availability from 2010 to 2019, while public facilities experienced the smallest declines and some increases in availability of select services. Specialty mental health services are still not widely offered in community outpatient settings despite significant investments in Medicaid, although Medicaid expansion was associated with slower declines in availability. New payment models that incentivize outpatient facilities to offer clinical and support services may be needed.

Children's unmet need for mental health care within and outside metropolitan areas.

Rural communities experience a lack of pediatric mental health providers. It is unclear if this leads to greater unmet needs for specialty mental health services among rural children. Data from the 2016-2019 National Survey of Children's Health were used to identify children aged 6-17 years with a mental health condition. Caregiver-reported need and receipt of specialty mental health care for their child (met need, unmet need, or no need) was compared according to residence in a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). The analysis included 13,021 children (14% living outside MSAs). Unmet need for mental health services was reported for 9% of children, with no difference by rural-urban residence (p=0.940). Multivariable analysis confirmed this finding and identified urban children as less likely to have no need for mental health services, compared to rural children (relative risk ratio of no need vs. met need: 0.79; 95% confidence interval: 0.65, 0.95; p=0.015). Children with mental health conditions living in rural areas (outside MSAs) did not have higher rates of unmet needs for specialty mental health services, but they had lower rates of any caregiver-reported needs for such services. Further work is needed to examine caregivers' demand for pediatric specialty mental health services.

Do "Real World" Childhood Mental Health Services Reduce Risk for Adult Psychiatric Disorders?

This study tested the "intervention as prevention" hypothesis: that treatment of childhood psychopathology in the community might reduce risk for adult psychopathology. Analyses were based on a prospective, population-based study of 1,420 children followed up to 8 times during childhood (ages 9-16 years; 6,674 observations) about psychiatric status and specialty mental health services use. Participants were followed up 4 times in adulthood (ages 19, 21, 25, and 30 years; 4,556 observations of 1,336 participants) to assess adult psychopathology. Participants with a childhood psychiatric disorder who used childhood specialty mental health services were at similar risk for adult emotional (odds ratio [OR]= 0.7; 95% CI= 0.3-1.4, p= .29) disorders and at higher risk for adult substance disorders (OR= 2.1; 95% CI= 1.1-4.2, p= .03) as compared those with a childhood disorder who did not use services. The risk for substance disorders was driven by children with behavioral disorders (OR= 3.6; 95% CI= 1.6-8.1, p= .002). Sensitivity analyses suggest that an unmeasured confounder would have to have an E value of 3.26 or risk ratio of 1.92 to alter this finding. Higher "dose" of services use (defined at 6+ visits) was not associated with improved outcomes. Community services use may reduce psychopathology within childhood, but they do not necessarily prevent adult psychiatric problems. These findings are consistent with the notion of mental health problems as chronic conditions that often begin in childhood but that may recur in different forms across the lifespan even when treated.

Association Between Telemedicine Use in Nonmetropolitan Counties and Quality of Care Received by Medicare Beneficiaries With Serious Mental Illness

Access to specialty mental health care remains challenging for people with serious mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Whether expansion of telemedicine is associated with improved access and quality of care for these patients is unclear. To assess whether greater telemedicine use in a nonmetropolitan county is associated with quality measures, including use of specialty mental health care and medication adherence. In this cohort study, the variable uptake of telemental health visits was examined across a national sample of fee-for-service claims from Medicare beneficiaries in 2916 nonmetropolitan counties between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2018. Beneficiaries with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders and/or bipolar I disorder during the study period were included. For each year of the study, each county was categorized based on per capita telemental health service use (none, low, moderate, and high). The association between telemental health service use in the county and quality measures was tested using a multivariate model controlling for both patient characteristics and county fixed effects. Analyses were conducted from January 1 to April 11, 2022. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, telemedicine reimbursement was limited to nonmetropolitan beneficiaries. Receipt of a minimum of 2 specialty mental health service visits (telemedicine or in-person) in the year, number of months per year with medication, hospitalization rate, and outpatient follow-up visits after a mental health hospitalization in a year. In 2018, there were 2916 counties with 118 170 patients (77 068 [65.2%] men; mean [SD] age, 58.3 [15.6] years) in the sample. The fraction of counties that had high telemental health service use increased from 2% in 2010 to 17% in 2018. In 2018 there were 1.08 telemental health service visits per patient in the high telemental health counties. Compared with no telemental health care in the county, patients in high-use counties were 1.2 percentage points (95% CI, 0.81-1.60 percentage points) (8.0% relative increase) more likely to have a minimum number of specialty mental health service visits, 13.7 percentage points (95% CI, 5.1-22.3 percentage points) (6.5% relative increase) more likely to have outpatient follow-up within 7 days of a mental health hospitalization, and 0.47 percentage points (95% CI, 0.25-0.69 percentage points) (7.6% relative increase) more likely to be hospitalized in a year. Telemental health service use was not associated with changes in medication adherence. The findings of this study suggest that greater use of telemental health visits in a county was associated with modest increases in contact with outpatient specialty mental health care professionals and greater likelihood of follow-up after hospitalization. No substantive changes in medication adherence were noted and an increase in mental health hospitalizations occurred.

The use of mental health services among children in kinship care: an application of Andersen’s Behavioral Model for Health Services Use

ABSTRACT This study examined predisposing, enabling, and need factors associated with mental health (MH) services, the use of school-based, medical-based, and specialty MH services, and the use of ≥2 MH services among children in kinship care. We analyzed a sample of children in kinship care (N = 718) selected from wave II of the National Survey on Child and Adolescent Well-Being II. Results indicated that child’s age, gender, ethnicity (being Hispanic) and clinically significant internalizing and externalizing problems were associated with their use of MH services. Furthermore, results indicated being Hispanic, older children, living in poverty primarily with male caregivers, and having clinically significant externalizing problems were associated with higher odds of receiving school-based MH services, while being a girl and living with caregivers with better physical health were associated with lower odds of receiving medical-based MH services. Experiencing household challenges and living with caregivers with better MH were associated with the odds of receiving specialty MH services. Experiencing household challenges, being Hispanic and older children, and living in formal kinship care were associated with higher odds of receiving ≥2 MH services. These findings suggest the importance of providing accessible and diverse MH services to children in kinship care.

Development and Measurement of the Treatment Perceptions Survey (TPS) for Clients with Substance Use Disorders

Statistical reliability of the Treatment Perceptions Survey (TPS) questionnaire was examined using data from 19 California counties. The 14-item TPS was designed for clients receiving substance use disorder services at publicly funded community-based programs. The TPS is being used for evaluation of the State’s 1115 Medicaid Waiver, external quality review of county-based systems of care, and quality improvement efforts. The survey addresses four domains of access to care, quality of care, care coordination, and general satisfaction that each include multiple items, plus a single item focused on self-reported outcome. Reliability test results of the four domains as composite measures were statistically significant. General satisfaction ratings were the best predictor of self-reported outcome in a path analysis model, followed by ratings of care coordination and quality of care. Separate analyses of TPS data from clients receiving specialty mental health services suggest the questionnaire can also be used reliably in mental health settings.

Prevalence and Correlates of Suicidal Ideation and Deliberate Self-harm in Canadian Adolescents During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic.

ObjectiveIn light of recent evidence that the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in marked increases in depression, anxiety, substance use, and other mental health concerns among Canadian adolescents, we investigated the rates of self-harm thoughts and behaviours in this population. Specifically, this study explored: (1) the demographic and geographic distributions of suicidal ideation (SI) and deliberate self-harm (DSH), and (2) the associations of mental health and substance use with SI and DSH.MethodA total of 809 Canadian adolescents, aged 12–18 years, completed an online survey between June 17, 2020 and July 31, 2020.Results44% of adolescents reported experiencing SI since the pandemic began, while 32% reported engaging in DSH. SI and DSH were more common among youth who: identified as transgender, non-binary or gender fluid; who did not reside with both parents; and who reported psychiatric concerns or frequent cannabis use.ConclusionCanadian adolescents appear to be experiencing higher rates of self-harm thoughts and behaviours relative to before the COVID-19 pandemic. It is important for adults who are likely to interact with distressed youth to be aware of potential warning signs that a youth is struggling with self-harm, and to refer youth to specialty mental health services where appropriate.

Transitioning patients from outpatient mental health services to primary care: A rapid literature review.

A lack of access to mental health services is a critical barrier to obtaining evidence-based care. One strategy to improve access is to transition stable patients out of mental health specialty services and into primary care, thus opening availability for new patients and those with acute mental health needs. To support these transitions, organizations might explore a range of new practices and implementation strategies. We conducted a rapid literature review to summarize descriptions from the research literature about practices for transitioning stable patients from outpatient mental health services to primary care, as well as implementation strategies to enhance the adoption and sustainment of these practices. We searched PsycINFO and Cumulated Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) for articles published between January 2000 and August 2019. For articles meeting inclusion criteria, we abstracted data on study characteristics, transition practices, and implementation strategies. We included 11 articles representing diverse study designs, settings, and health care organizations. Across these articles, we identified six categories of commonly described transition practices, with patient engagement appearing the most frequently (10 articles), followed by shared treatment planning (eight articles), assessment of recovery and stability, care coordination, follow up and support, and medication management (seven articles each). Less frequently, articles included descriptions of implementation strategies, with five articles describing efforts to train and educate stakeholders and four articles describing the use of evaluative and iterative strategies. We identified descriptions of several common practices to help patients transition from mental health specialty services to primary care, but there are opportunities for an increased focus on implementation strategies to enhance the adoption and sustainment of these transition practices. More research is needed to better understand the effectiveness of specific transition interventions and the feasibility of deploying these interventions in heterogeneous health care settings.

Implementation of Prolonged Exposure for PTSD: Pilot Program of PE for Primary Care in VA

First-line treatments for patients with PTSD require referral to specialty mental health services to receive trauma-focused therapies such as Prolonged Exposure (PE), a psychotherapy that involves 8 to 15, 90-minute sessions. Many patients referred to specialty mental health care services do not follow up with the recommended care, making efforts to increase uptake critical. Expansion of mental health treatment in primary care has been effective in minimizing patient care barriers and facilitating improved engagement in mental health services. Prolonged Exposure for Primary Care (PE-PC), which is comprised of four to eight, 30-minute sessions, involves imaginal exposure, in vivo exposure, and emotional processing of traumatic memories, and is associated with reductions in PTSD, as well as depression and associated mental health symptoms. This manuscript provides a detailed overview of PE-PC and two illustrative case examples describing use in VA primary care clinic settings.

Reducing racial/ethnic disparities in mental health service use among emerging adults: community-level supply factors

ABSTRACT Objectives: Emerging adulthood—spanning 18–29 years of age—is associated with the highest risk for onset of certain behavioral health disorders (e.g. major depression, bipolar disorder, psychosis, substance use disorders) and high prevalence of many behavioral health disorders. Yet, rates of mental health service use remain low in this age range. Racial/ethnic minorities are particularly impacted by individual, cultural/linguistic, and community-level barriers to mental health care. This study examined community-level factors associated with mental health service use and investigated whether these associations varied by race/ethnicity. Design: This study analyzed individual- and county-level data for emerging adults in the United States (N=3,294) from the nationally representative Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys (CPES). Using the Andersen Model of Health Care Utilization, analyses examined predisposing, enabling, and need factors utilized in prior studies with adult samples as well as novel community characteristics hypothesized to impact service use among emerging adults of diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds. Past-year use of both specialty and any mental health services were assessed, controlling for individual- and community-level variables, and adjusting for presence of past-year mental health disorder, overall health status, and functional impairment. Differences between racial/ethnic minority groups and Non-Latino Whites were tested through a multilevel model incorporating random intercepts logistic regression, with analysis focusing on the interaction between race/ethnicity and community-level supply variables. Results: For past-year use of specialty mental health services, density of hospitals with child wellness programs was linked to service use among Black emerging adults, whereas density of hospitals with linguistic/translation services was linked to service use among Latino emerging adults. Conclusions: This study expands on previous research in behavioral health disparities to examine ways to improve behavioral health services for an emerging adult population with unmet service needs and identifies specific community-level factors that can improve mental health for racial/ethnic minority emerging adults.

Social determinants of mental health care systems: intensive community based Care in the Veterans Health Administration

BackgroundSince deinstitutionalization in the 1950s–1970s, public mental health care has changed its focus from asylums to general hospitals, outpatient clinics and specialized community-based programs addressing both clinical and social determinants of mental health. Analysis of the place of community-based programs within a comprehensive health system such as the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) may illuminate the role of social forces in shaping contemporary public mental health systems.MethodsNational VHA administrative data were used to compare veterans who exclusively received outpatient clinic care to those receiving four types of specialized community-based services, addressing: 1) functional disabilities from severe mental illness (SMI), 2) justice system involvement, 3) homelessness, and 4) vocational rehabilitation. Bivariate comparisons and multinomial logistic regression analyses compared groups on demographics, diagnoses, service use, and psychiatric prescription fills.ResultsAn hierarchical classification of 1,386,487 Veterans who received specialty mental health services from VHA in Fiscal Year 2012, showed 1,134,977 (81.8%) were seen exclusively in outpatient clinics; 27,931 (2.0%) received intensive SMI-related services; 42,985 (3.1%) criminal justice services; 160,273 (11.6%) specialized homelessness services; and 20,921 (1.5%) vocational services. Compared to those seen only in clinics, veterans in the four community treatment groups were more likely to be black, diagnosed with HIV and hepatitis, had more numerous substance use diagnoses and made far more extensive use of mental health outpatient and inpatient care.ConclusionsAlmost one-fifth of VHA mental health patients receive community-based services prominently addressing major social determinants of health and multimorbid substance use disorders.

Associations of Childhood and Adolescent Depression With Adult Psychiatric and Functional Outcomes

Depression is common, impairing, and the leading cause of disease burden in youths. This study aimed to identify the effects of childhood/adolescent depression on a broad range of longer-term outcomes. The analysis is based on the prospective, representative Great Smoky Mountains Study of 1,420 participants. Participants were assessed with the structured Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment interview up to 8 times in childhood (age 9-16 years; 6,674 observations; 1993-2000) for DSM-based depressive disorders, associated psychiatric comorbidities, and childhood adversities. Participants were followed up 4 times in adulthood (ages 19, 21, 25, and 30 years; 4,556 observations of 1,336 participants; 1999-2015) with the structured Young Adult Psychiatric Assessment Interview for psychiatric outcomes and functional outcomes. In all, 7.7% of participants met criteria for a depressive disorder in childhood/adolescence. Any childhood/adolescent depression was associated with higher levels of adult anxiety and illicit drug disorders and also with worse health, criminal, and social functioning; these associations persisted when childhood psychiatric comorbidities and adversities were accounted for. No sex-specific patterns were identified. However, timing of depression mattered: individuals with adolescent-onset depression had worse outcomes than those with child-onset. Average depressive symptoms throughout childhood and adolescence were associated with more adverse outcomes. Finally, specialty mental health service use was protective against adult diagnostic outcomes. Early depression and especially persistent childhood/adolescent depressive symptoms have robust, lasting associations with adult functioning. Some of these effects may be attenuated by service use.

Predictors of community versus specialty mental health service use: a prospective cohort study

Child and adolescent mental health specialized services (CAMHS) are supposed to serve those who are most seriously disturbed and impaired. However, little is known about how children receiving treatment at different levels of care differ. The present study seeks to determine whether having a psychiatric disorder and resulting impairment measured in early childhood increases the odds of receiving help in CAMHS versus from community services during middle childhood or whether other factors (e.g., parenting stress, family functioning) also influence service utilization. A screen-stratified sample (n = 995 of the 2003–2004 birth cohorts) in Trondheim, Norway was assessed biennially from age 4–12 with semi-structured diagnostic interviews and recording of service use, family functioning, parental perceived need, and parenting stress. Behavioral disorders more strongly predicted CAMHS than community service use, whereas impairment predicted community service use. However, impairment increased the odds of receiving services in CAMHS if the parents perceived a need for help. Parental perceived need for help also increased the odds of CAMHS use independent of diagnosis and impairment. Having an emotional disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), parenting stress, previous service use, or family functioning did not predict service use at either level. Whereas children with behavioral disorders received help from CAMHS, children with emotional disorders did not receive services at either level. ADHD did not predict service use, indicating that young children with ADHD without comorbid disorders are not sufficiently detected. Efforts to detect, refer and treat emotional disorders and ADHD at the appropriate level should be increased.

Treatment for Adolescent Depression: National Patterns, Temporal Trends, and Factors Related to Service Use Across Settings

PurposeUntreated major depression can lead to various negative health and social consequences among adolescents. This study aimed to examine national patterns, temporal trends, and factors related to U.S. adolescents' mental health service use for 12-month major depression across service settings. MethodsData on adolescents aged 12–17 years who received treatment for their 12-month major depression were drawn from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2011–2018. Patterns, trends, and factors related to adolescents' service use in specialty mental health, educational, and general medical settings and multiple settings were examined using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression. ResultsAcross the survey years, service use in specialty mental health settings was the most common, followed by educational and general medical settings. A significant increase was observed in adolescents' specialty mental health service use (p < .001) over time, whereas the rates of service use in educational and general medical settings remained stable. Approximately 40% of adolescents who were treated for 12-month depression received services in multiple settings each year, with no significant change over time. Among multisetting service users, combined service use in specialty mental health and educational settings was the most common. Adolescents' age, race, gender, insurance status, family income, and school experiences significantly influenced their service use across settings. ConclusionsContinued efforts are needed to improve service provision for adolescents with depression, especially in educational and general medical settings. Strengthened funding and policy support are warranted to expand safety-net mental health services for uninsured, low-income, and racial/ethnic minority adolescents.