Specialized Content Knowledge Research Articles

A microgenetic analysis of teachers’ learning through teaching

BackgroundWhat and how teachers learn through teaching without external guidance has long been of interest to researchers. Yet limited research has been conducted to investigate how learning through teaching occurs. The microgenetic approach (Siegler and Crowley, American Psychologist 46:606–620, 1991) has been useful in identifying the process of student learning. Using this approach, we investigated the development of teacher knowledge through teaching as well as which factors hinder or promote such development.ResultsOur findings suggest that teachers developed various components of teacher knowledge through teaching without external professional guidance. Further, we found that the extent to which teachers gained content-free or content-specific knowledge through teaching depended on their robust understanding of the concept being taught (i.e., content knowledge), the cognitive demand of the tasks used in teaching, and the lesson structure chosen (i.e., student centered vs. teacher centered).ConclusionsIn this study, we explored teacher learning through teaching and identified the sources leading to such learning. Our findings underscore the importance of teachers’ robust understanding of the content being taught, the tasks used in teaching, and a lesson structure that promotes teachers’ learning through teaching on their own.

Pre‐service middle school teachers' specialized content knowledge on sampling variability

AbstractThis study investigates a range of non‐normative ideas that pre‐service teachers (PSTs) employ in reasoning about sampling variability. This issue was studied in the context of a content course on statistics and probability for pre‐service middle grade teachers at a Midwestern American university. Analysis of seven PSTs' video and screen records of task‐based interviews has articulated fundamental facets of sampling variability that have not yet been fully explicated in the literature, especially with middle grade PSTs. With the content expectation of sampling variability for middle grade students as suggested by policy reports in the United States of America, this study is particularly fertile ground for designing curricula that can support middle grade PSTs' development of critical specialized content knowledge on sampling variability.

Bridging Gaps: Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers’ Handling the Difficulties in Posing Real-World Mathematical Problems

Real-world mathematical problem (RWMP) solving and posing are important aspects of teaching and learning mathematical modelling, as well as developing a mathematization disposition for both teachers and students. Several researchers have explored blockages or difficulties in such modelling processes and in problem posing. However, prior research has identified difficulties that the pre-service mathematics teachers (PSMTs) encountered when they tried to pose a modelling problem by choosing the general topic themselves, as there is little known about possible obstacles that PSMTs can encounter when trying to pose a real-world problem relevant to a given mathematical topic. The current study explored the difficulties encountered by PSMTs in a RWMP-posing activity. The target group was 23 PSMTs with prior experience in mathematical modelling and mathematical problem posing. The findings showed that the PSMTs struggled with: (a) task organization, which involved selecting and understanding mathematical knowledge; (b) specialized content knowledge, which included a lack of real-world knowledge and difficulty in connecting mathematical concepts to real-world contexts; and (c) individual considerations of aptness, which encompassed authenticity, interest, complexity, language, and relevance to task organization. The PSMTs applied various strategies to complete the posing task, such as using problem-posing and solving heuristics, adapting existing problems, sharing and discussing with friends, and considering the perspective of a typical student. The implications of these findings should help in developing preparatory instructional practices for mathematics teachers.

Designing TPACK-English Textbook for Economic Faculty Students

This study thoroughly investigates the educational needs of Economics students in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), based on a survey of 292 students and 12 alumni from the Economics faculty. The study reveals nuanced linguistic preferences across six fundamental components: task, activity, language use, technology, pedagogy, and topic or content relevancy. The findings show that listening skills, particularly for information acquisition, were highly valued (mean score: 3.01), whereas speaking abilities such as explaining and knowledge elicitation were universally deemed critical (mean scores > 3.00), whereas activities such as making suggestions were deemed less important (mean score: 1.99). The study also identified important areas in economics education, highlighting significant topics such as Economics, Microeconomics, and Islamic Economics (mean scores > 3.00) and the impact of English proficiency levels in maximizing learning experiences. The findings demonstrate a variety of activity priorities, with a focus on collaborative instructional tactics and specific linguistic demands in economic communication. Furthermore, this study explored students’ educational needs and the design of English instructional material for economics faculty students. This design integrates technology, language skills, and economic theory to improve student learning and skill acquisition.

Insights into a Community of Inquiry that emerged during academics’ emergency remote university teaching of chemistry in response to concern for students

ABSTRACT Background Effective teaching of university chemistry in an online environment not only requires teachers to have specific discipline content knowledge; it also requires them to have knowledge and skills in technology-enhanced teaching practices. When transitioning from traditional face-to-face teaching into online contexts, teachers must learn new strategies and methods, along with a shift in their beliefs. Whilst online learning of chemistry is commonplace in many higher education institutions globally, the integration of computer and digital technologies in teaching chemistry in developing countries had been limited prior to the 2020 pandemic. Purpose In this study, the experiences, perceptions, and teaching strategies of university chemistry teachers in the Philippines have been explored during the transition of their instruction to emergency remote teaching at two timepoints during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sample Data were collected in the form of survey responses from 139 participants representing 35 universities and colleges across the nation. Results No strong relationships were found between participants’ experiences and their academic rank, length of service, or institution type, suggesting university chemistry teachers took similar approaches to quickly adopt and adapt available technologies to deliver the required curriculum. Since the Philippines continues to struggle to establish a robust infrastructure to promote online and technology-enhanced learning, participants had to devise pedagogies and practices that would allow accessible learning experiences for their students by curating online tools that would require minimal bandwidth and low internet data consumption. Using abductive methodology, the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework was employed as a guide in interpreting university chemistry teachers’ experiences and perceptions about their implementation of emergency remote teaching using online technologies. Whilst participants had limited prior experiences in employing online learning pedagogies, key elements of the CoI framework became apparent through the new technologies and practices implemented by university chemistry teachers which fostered teaching presence, cognitive presence, and social presence.

Toward proficiency: Developing a multiplication mathematical content knowledge test for pre-service mathematics teachers in Indonesia and Türkiye

This study aimed to develop a specific Mathematical Content Knowledge (MCK) test focused on multiplication for pre-service mathematics teachers in Indonesia and Türkiye. No assessment tool exists to measure MCK related to multiplication among pre-service mathematics teachers. We used convenience sampling to obtain data from third- and fourth-year pre-service teachers in Indonesian and Turkish mathematics teacher education programs. The test items were administered to 423 Indonesian pre-service mathematics teachers and 413 Turkish pre-service mathematics teachers, and their responses were analyzed using factor analysis. The MCK test was found to be reliable, with 18 items that were grouped into four components: procedural knowledge of multiplication (C1), understanding of multiple representations (C2), conceptual knowledge of multiplication (C3), and anticipating students' thinking (C4). The study results suggest that a valid MCK test helps evaluate multiplication in these four components. Additionally, the study findings indicate that Indonesian pre-service teachers score higher in the C1 and C4 categories, while Turkish pre-service teachers score higher in the C2 and C3 categories.

Superior Performance Competencies Achieved Through Destination Imagination Experiences

Today’s workforce not only requires specific content-area knowledge and skills achieved through formal education but also, and most critically, superior performance competencies including distinguishable behaviors. While formal education prioritizes easily detectable and measurable content-specific knowledge and skills, superior performance competencies such as cognitive, affective, and motivational skills remain secondary unless students engage in extracurricular activities in real-world settings. This qualitative study investigated the phenomenon of achieving an array of superior performance competencies through learning by doing, at one of the 2023 Destination Imagination events. This study marked the first fieldwork in which the principal researcher directly observed the event in its natural setting. Data were collected, analyzed, and interpreted concurrently during the event by means of observations, ordinary conversations, and an informal interview. The inductive data analysis included analytic memos, and midway hypothesis coding which confirmed the significance of immersing in such activities and resulted in two major findings: 1) participating in such meaningful real-world activities cultivates distinctive behaviors that drive exceptional performance, positioning participants to stand out among their peers; and 2) this involvement also equips students with the capabilities to excel upon entering the workforce, ensuring superior employee performance in their roles.

The effect of specialized content knowledge in reciprocal peer learning in a university content class

ABSTRACT Background Teaching strategies using peers to influence student-learning outcomes are commonly used in physical education. Reciprocal peer learning is a teaching strategy where students work in pairs as tutor and tutee. Effective peer tutoring requires knowledge about the critical elements for correct performance (i.e. common content knowledge, CCK) and knowing how to detect and address common errors (i.e. specialized content knowledge, SCK). Research on training students for their task as tutor to increase peer learning effectiveness is limited. Purpose and research question This study documents an online approach to prepare students for their role as tutor during reciprocal peer learning. Also, it investigates the effect of online CCK + SCK-training versus online CCK-only training on (a) skill performance by tutees and error detection by tutors during peer learning; and (b) individual skill performance at a 1-week retention test. Methods Seventy-seven undergraduate students (25 female, 52 male) were randomly assigned to an online CCK + SCK (n = 37) or CCK-only (n = 40) training for learning Basic Life Support (BLS) as part of their curriculum. All participants learned online the correct procedure for BLS according to international guidelines (i.e. CCK). In the CCK + SCK condition, students additionally learned online to detect and correct four common errors related to chest compression. Following the online training all students learned BLS using reciprocal peer learning with manikins. For each student pair skill performance during practice by tutees was reported using digital manikins and error detection by tutors was collected using systematic observation of video recordings. One week following practice (i.e. retention), BLS-performance was assessed individually using a validated protocol. Findings During peer learning, SCK-trained tutees performed less unique errors (Mdn = 2 vs. 1, p < .05) and SCK-trained tutors detected a higher proportion of unique errors (Mdn 100% vs. 0%, p < .05) compared to CCK-only trained students. At retention, SCK-trained students outperformed the CCK-group for chest compressions with adequate rate (Mdn 91% vs. 69% p < .05) and complete release (Mdn 81% vs. 35% p < .05). Conclusions Teaching undergraduate students online to detect and correct errors positively impacted the quality of practice during peer learning and the performance at retention.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge in the Physical Education Field. A systematic review of the literature 2011-2022

Teaching of Physical Education, knowledge about what to teach, who to teach and how to teach must be considered; within the framework of these aspects, Pedagogical Content Knowledge arises, considered as an amalgamation between content and pedagogy. This study analysed the scientific production in the Scopus, Web of Science and Science Direct databases, regarding the development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge in the Physical Education Field, between 2011 and 2022 and was done systematically. Articles were included in English and Spanish, for a total of 32 articles. The results show that there was a peak of publications in the year 2020; the country in which more studies have been carried out is the United States; regarding the level of research, the vast majority are of an explanatory nature. The studies were classified into three categories: Pedagogical Content Knowledge in school Physical Education, in School Sports and in training programs for physical education teachers. It could be concluded that there is a need for Common Content Knowledge and Specialized Content Knowledge to be better taught in teacher education programs as they are a fundamental basis for Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Likewise, since this construct is dynamic and changing, it should also be considered in the professional development phase, since field experience and the relationships established in the field provide new knowledge and formative experiences. Keywords: Pedagogical content knowledge, physical education, teacher training, school sports, literature review.

Mathematical knowledge for teaching and mathematics didactic knowledge: a comparative study

AbstractThis paper compares and contrasts two approaches that are widely used in the English- and German-speaking discourse on mathematics teacher knowledge: ‘mathematical knowledge for teaching’ and ‘mathematics didactic knowledge’. It is proposed that these constructs are based on distinct theoretical and conceptual positions and origins. Mathematical knowledge for teaching is viewed as a utilitarian-pragmatic approach rooted in English-speaking traditions as it focuses on its use in teaching and represents a practice-based conceptualization of knowledge domains required for mathematics teaching. Mathematics didactic knowledge, on the other hand, is considered normative-descriptive as it is formulated based on didactic principles and broader theoretical perspectives, providing a theory-driven conceptualization of knowledge domains rooted in traditions of German-speaking didactics of mathematics. The paper further highlights similarities and differences in these two constructs through an examination of two central knowledge domains: specialized content knowledge (part of mathematical knowledge for teaching) and subject matter didactic knowledge (part of mathematics didactic knowledge).

Reorganizing assessment questions to provide additional information on student understanding of specific course content.

Performance on exams and course letter grades are broad standards used to determine understanding of course content. To gain a different perspective on students' knowledge, we examined whether grouping exam questions based on the topic they assessed would provide additional information on students' comprehension. Assessment questions from our physiology course were organized into groups based on major physiology content categories. We created 10 content categories and calculated students' performance in each category. The average of the 10 scores was compared with the course grade. The scores in individual categories reflected student knowledge of specific physiology content. The average scores of the 10 categories correlated with course letter grades. Analysis of performance demonstrated that 65% of students with course grades between 70 and 73% answered less than 70% of assessment questions correctly in four or more content categories. Evaluation of performance in grouped assessment questions provided additional information on student understanding and identified specific course content in which students underperformed.

EXPLORING TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON THE PEDAGOGY OF WRITING SKILLS IN ENGLISH FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE

English writing proficiency in First Additional Language amongst Intermediate Phase learners has not reached satisfactory levels in South African schools. The aim of this paper was to explore teachers’ views on the teaching of writing skills in English First Additional Language specifically of grade 4 learners. The study sought to ascertain strategies used by teachers in teaching writing skills in selected EFAL grade 4 classrooms in uMkhanyakude District in the KwaZulu Natal province. A descriptive multiple case study design was adopted for this paper. Qualitative approach through semi-structured interviews and classroom observation were adopted, interpretive paradigm, purposive sampling, and thematic analysis were used. Findings revealed that teachers use various teaching strategies depending on the type of writing genre taught, needs of their learners, availability of resources and their context. Findings also indicated that teachers face challenges when teaching writing, they lack pedagogical knowledge on how to effectively teach writing and the support received is inadequate to enhance their pedagogy of writing skills especially for English First Additional Language. The paper concludes that there is a need for significant improvement on specific content and pedagogical knowledge that teachers possess to teach writing. Thus, this paper provides recommendations which emphasises the improvement of Initial Teacher Education in the writing domain by specifying the content and pedagogical knowledge to be taught, and ensuring adequate time dedicated to writing and writing instruction. Therefore, the paper advocates towards deep knowledge and understanding on how teachers can use a variety of strategies in trying to reinforce teaching of writing skills.

Prospective Mathematics Teachers’ Task Modifications Utilizing Their Knowledge of Pattern Generalization

The purpose of the study is to evaluate how prospective mathematics teachers (PMTs) modify tasks to facilitate students' learning of pattern generalization through the use of their knowledge. The qualitative research method was used to determine the mathematical characteristics that PMTs use when modifying a mathematical task. In addition, the knowledge that PMTs draw from to modify the task has been outlined. Accordingly, data were collected from PMTs’ task modifications and reflection reports. When PMTs worked on two or more forms of modification, as compared to just one, they modified tasks more properly and comprehensively in a relevant manner. The PMTs who make condition modifications need to utilize specialized content knowledge and knowledge of content and student to help students understand through the use of models or tables. They also used their knowledge of content and teaching in organizing the questions in a way that encouraged inductive reasoning and problems based on real-world or familiar contexts in context modifications. Task modification activities can be a good way for future teachers to notice the role of tasks in mathematics teaching and demonstrate their use of knowledge.

Professional Development Workshop for Physical Education Teachers in Southwest China: Benefiting Tai Chi Students with Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Researchers have examined the common and specialized content knowledge (CCK/SCK) of physical education (PE) teachers and compared their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) with student learning outcomes globally. However, little research has been reported in China on the relationship between PCK and student learning in PE settings. The aims of the study were (i) to investigate the influence of teacher content knowledge (CCK/SCK) on student development stages in PE settings and (ii) to examine the impact of teachers’ PCK on students’ performance in Tai Chi techniques (TCTs) after six days of instruction. Two PE teachers were chosen from two urban, public, mid-sized middle schools located in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China. This study involved 332 students from six 5th and six 6th grade classes. The study consisted of 185 5th-grade students (98 boys and 87 girls) and 147 6th-grade students (70 boys and 77 girls). We examined how teacher PCK and student TCT changed after a professional development workshop (PDW). Each PE teacher had two classes randomly assigned to the control or experimental condition groups. This study had three phases. Initially, the control condition was introduced; then, a PDW was provided for the teachers; and finally, the experimental condition was implemented. Teaching behaviors were described using mean values, and t-tests based on the highest TCT scores were conducted to examine the effect of teachers’ PCK on students’ TCT learning. Furthermore, PCK effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d. Significant relationships existed between teachers’ PCK, CK, and students’ knowledge, with effect sizes ranging from 1.92 to 6.82. Additionally, improvements in teachers’ PCK were associated with improved TCT performance in students (p &lt; 0.05). Increased knowledge and skills can improve teachers’ PCK behavior, resulting in improved student performance in TCTs. These findings may provide evidence for future recommendations regarding knowledge and skill training programs for physical education teachers.

The Impact of Sport Education on Physical Education Majors’ Basketball Content Knowledge and Performance

Purpose: To examine the consistency of findings between two studies examining the impact of sport education on Chinese physical education preservice teachers’ content knowledge and performance of volleyball and basketball. Methods: One hundred and six preservice teachers’ from a university in central China participated in six semester-long courses of basketball taught using either a Multi-Activity or Sport Education model of instruction. Pre- and postcourse measures of game performance were recorded for common content knowledge and specialized content knowledge. Results: After controlling for preintervention scores, statistically significant differences favoring Sport Education were found for common content knowledge as well as specialized content knowledge. Students in Sport Education had 62 times higher odds of reaching the specialized content knowledge benchmark depth for acceptable content development. Conclusion: These findings provide support for the idea that the accountability mechanisms specific to Sport Education, together with the tasks related to designing team training plans, serve to promote students’ ability to design and sequence tasks based on their team’s needs.

Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Instructional Models in Training In-Service Physical Education Teachers in Southwest China

The provision of advanced specialized content knowledge (SCK) that facilitates in-service teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is one aspect of physical education (PE) worth attention. To some extent, instructional models for training PE teachers on PCK implementation have been studied internationally. Cooperative learning (CL) is rarely reported in China, where direct instruction (DI) is commonly used to assist PE teachers. This study fills in the gaps and investigates whether PE in-service teachers receive proper training during short sessions to improve their PCK. We examined the effect of scaffolding procedures on in-service PE teachers’ PCK, skills, and self-efficacy compared to CL and DI. Hence, the question arose as to whether this support training provided by the instructor would assist in-service teachers in their perception of their efficacy as PE teachers. We deliberately selected 72 in-service PE teachers from twelve middle schools in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China (23, 22, and 27 teachers for CL with scaffolding, CL, and DI conditions, respectively). CL and CLS participants were divided into mixed-sex teams using the CL procedure (Jigsaw) during the training session, while DI participants practiced the same training session in tandem. Pre- and post-tests were used to measure PE in-service teachers’ SCK, skills, and self-efficacy improvements. Additionally, PCK was also examined in the post-test. The mean scores for teaching self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge of practice for all three training conditions (CLS, CL, and DI) were similar at baseline. These parameters significantly differed between the three groups at the pre- and post-test. Post hoc tests revealed that participants in CLS programs improved their performance scores more from pre-test to post-test than participants in DI programs. Among CLS and CL participants, post hoc analyses indicated that their scores improved more significantly than those of DI participants between the pre- and post-tests. The correlation analysis showed positive correlations between post-test performance, PCK, and teaching self-efficacy in each condition. Direct access to teacher intervention information would be the key to developing instructional knowledge. CL training designs should incorporate scaffolding to help in-service teachers develop self-efficacy through physical activities.

The role of specialised content knowledge in teaching basic life support

Objective: To investigate the role of specialised content knowledge in instructor training on the teaching and learning of basic life support (BLS) in secondary schools. Design: Cluster randomised controlled trial. Setting: Data were collected in three Flemish secondary schools during physical education classes. Method: Three secondary schools were randomly assigned to a 60-minute BLS instructor training without (one school, three teachers) or with (two schools, five teachers) a focus on recognising and addressing common errors. Knowledge of common errors in the performance of BLS and how to correct these is referred to as specialised content knowledge. Following instructor training, all teachers taught BLS lessons to different students. Teachers’ use of time and interactions were assessed by means of systematic observation. BLS performance was assessed individually and unannounced to students ( n = 294) one week following their training using a validated protocol. Results: On average, specialised content knowledge teachers interacted more with their students compared to common content knowledge teachers (8 vs 3 teacher interactions per lesson to the class as a whole, 43 vs 31 teacher interactions per lesson to students individually). In addition, students taught by specialised content knowledge teachers achieved significantly higher BLS scores (66% vs 61%; p &lt; .05). Overall, average BLS performance of students correlated positively with the amount of time reserved for hands-on practice, r(21) = .51; p &lt; .05. Conclusion: Specialised content knowledge (i.e. recognising and addressing common errors) should be part of BLS instructor training courses.

Exploring the pedagogical practices of seasoned elementary mathematics teachers and connections with their content knowledge and beliefs

AbstractThis inquiry examined the pedagogical practices in mathematics of elementary teachers (N = 27) who had been identified as experienced and successful and were working in an urban school district with underserved student populations. Also investigated were relationships between their instructional practices and other elements of proficient teaching of mathematics, including specialized content knowledge and beliefs. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected via a knowledge assessment, belief surveys, classroom observations, and individual interviews. The findings related to learner‐centered, equitable mathematics instruction reveal a mixed picture of understanding and enactment by the participants, illuminating variability and complexity, especially within the context of a standardized model for instructional delivery. Participants expressed constraints in implementing learner‐centered, equitable mathematics instruction, particularly: prescribed, scripted lesson plans; teaching roles that involved instruction of many students thus contributing to lack of familiarity; and a mix of learners who were in‐class and remote due to the COVID‐19 pandemic. The results also demonstrate that pedagogical practices were shaped by participants’ specialized content knowledge and to a more limited extent their beliefs. These data further reveal mixed endorsements of the different belief constructs. Considerations for teacher development are discussed.

Evaluating the Content Knowledge of Preservice Physical Education Teachers

Purpose: We examined the variables of common content knowledge, specialized content knowledge, and performance that preservice teachers had acquired from their K–12 physical education and extracurricular experiences and the effects of a content course on improving their content knowledge and performance. Method: Nineteen preservice teachers were assessed during a half a semester long content course using pre- and posttests of common content knowledge, soccer performance, and two specialized content knowledge variables: instructional tasks and error analysis. Relationships between experience in playing and coaching for each assessment were conducted. Data are reported descriptively and inferentially. Results: Preservice teachers had poor pretest scores on all variables except performance. Posttest scores following the content class showed substantive, highly significant relationships with large effect sizes. Yet, the levels obtained were less than desirable for all common content knowledge and specialized content knowledge variables, except performance. A number of relationships were found between experience and the measures. Discussion/Conclusion: Our results suggest that more research needs to be conducted on the design of content courses in physical education teacher education.

Learning Designers as Expert Evaluators of Usability: Understanding Their Potential Contribution to Improving the Universality of Interface Design for Health Resources.

User-based evaluation by end users is an essential step in designing useful interfaces. Inspection methods can offer an alternate approach when end-user recruitment is problematic. A Learning Designers' usability scholarship could offer usability evaluation expertise adjunct to multidisciplinary teams in academic settings. The feasibility of Learning Designers as 'expert evaluators' is assessed within this study. Two groups, healthcare professionals and Learning Designers, applied a hybrid evaluation method to generate usability feedback from a palliative care toolkit prototype. Expert data were compared to end-user errors detected from usability testing. Interface errors were categorised, meta-aggregated and severity calculated. The analysis found that reviewers detected N = 333 errors, with N = 167 uniquely occurring within the interface. Learning Designers identified errors at greater frequencies (60.66% total interface errors, mean (M) = 28.86 per expert) than other evaluator groups (healthcare professionals 23.12%, M = 19.25 and end users 16.22%, M = 9.0). Patterns in severity and error types were also observed between reviewer groups. The findings suggest that Learning Designers are skilled in detecting interface errors, which benefits developers assessing usability when access to end users is limited. Whilst not offering rich narrative feedback generated by user-based evaluations, Learning Designers complement healthcare professionals' content-specific knowledge as a 'composite expert reviewer' with the ability to generate meaningful feedback to shape digital health interfaces.