Special Management Area Research Articles

Status of monitoring and evaluation of Tonga’s Special Management Area program

Tonga’s Special Management Areas (SMAs) have been widely supported by the people of Tonga as a successful approach to the comanagement of their fisheries and marine resources. However, due to the dominant focus on expansion of the program over recent years, challenges remain for the effective and consistent monitoring and evaluation needed to understand program impacts. This review compiles all known ecological, fisheries, and socio-economic monitoring and evaluation reports related to Tonga’s Special Management Areas from 2010 onwards. A total of 25 projects with available reports were identified, with most examining ecological (42%) and socio-economic (42%) aspects of SMAs, whereas reporting on SMA fisheries data (e.g. catch) was limited to five available projects. Most studies also represented ‘baseline’ ecological and socio-economic surveys of SMAs during implementation. Only three studies have assessed the ecological impact of SMAs post intervention, and only one of these incorporated ‘follow-up’ surveys at a second time point. Among these, impacts remain mixed, with some SMAs resulting in larger and more abundant fish, but others showing no impact. Other monitoring challenges include no gender disaggregation of data, no monitoring of gleaning, haphazard monitoring by communities, and general concerns of cost, fit for purpose, and overinvestment. Although the limited available ecological data indicates that SMAs can increase fish size and abundance in some cases, rationalised, more efficient, and targeted monitoring is required to better understand and strengthen the functioning of SMAs and inform community and government management decisions.

Risk of Exposure to Coccidioides spp. in the Temblor Special Recreation Management Area (SRMA), Kern County, CA

The Temblor Mountain Special Recreation Area (SRMA) on the western flank of the San Joaquin Valley, CA, is located in the endemic area of Coccidioides, a fungal pathogen responsible for the increasing incidence of coccidioidomycosis (Valley fever). Recreationists in the SRMA, such as off-highway vehicle (OHV) drivers and mountain bikers who disturb the soils, are at risk of being exposed to airborne arthroconidia (asexual spores) of the pathogen. To reduce the risk of pathogen exposure for visitors, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) plans to limit recreational activities to areas with a reduced pathogen presence. They envision an official OHV park in the future, by also restricting access to areas with ongoing restoration efforts and by limiting soil erosion in sensitive areas. To investigate which soils in the Temblor SRMA are most likely to support the growth of Coccidioides spp., soil samples were collected over a 3-year period from dominant soil types in a northern and a southern sampling area and analyzed for the pathogen using a culture-independent PCR-based method. In addition, soil pH and electrical conductivity were determined. The results of this study revealed slight genetic variance in the Coccidioides sequences obtained from the soils of the Temblor SRMA. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) could not confirm differences in soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) between the different soil types investigated and between sites where the pathogen was detected compared to sites where it could not be found. However, the year of sampling appeared to have an influence on observed soil pH and EC, and the presence of the pathogen. Of all dominant soil types investigated, those belonging to the Littlesignal-Cochora association were the least likely to contain the pathogen, whereas soils of the Beam-Panoza-Hillbrick association appeared more supportive. In addition to pointing out OHV areas with lower pathogen exposure risk in the Temblor SRMA, recommendations were made to educate visitors and BLM workers about the risk of contracting Valley fever.

공공주택특별법에 따른 토지이용제한과 재산권침해

Land use restrictions under the Special Act on Public Housing severely limit private property rights. Under the Special Act on Public Housing, land use restrictions are being imposed by designating public housing districts, designating special management areas, and re-designating public housing districts. In particular, after the special management area is lifted, re-designating the land as a public housing district cannot be permitted without any legal basis. Permitting this re-designation is a serious violation of the property rights of landowners and others in the public housing district and violates the rule of law. In addition, designating a public housing district again after the cancellation of the special management area effectively deprives or severely limits the private property rights of the land owner and others. Even if the re-designation of public housing districts is viewed as a regulation of property rights or social binding of property rights, it significantly infringes the property rights of landowners in the public housing district and violates the principle of proportionality. The requirements for the designation of a special management area as an “area of concern for poor development” should be specifically and clearly defined. If other land use restrictions under the Special Act on Public Housing infringe property rights, reasonable compensation provisions, including the right to claim purchases, should be prepared.

Incentivizing co‐management for impact: mechanisms driving the successful national expansion of Tonga's Special Management Area program

AbstractThe expansion of coastal marine protected areas can suffer from two key drawbacks: (a) the difficulty of incentivizing local communities to manage areas for conservation when their livelihoods also depend on resource use; and (b) that many protected areas get situated residually, or in locations with limited value for either biodiversity conservation or livelihoods. Here, we discuss and analyze key characteristics of Tonga's Special Management Area (SMA) program, including both the mechanisms that have motivated its successful national expansion and its ability to configure no‐take reserves in areas that are considered to have high value to resource users. Granting communities exclusive access zones in exchange for implementing no‐take reserves has encouraged conservation actions while fostering long‐term relationships with resources. Ensuring no‐take reserves occurred within the boundaries of exclusive access zones enabled communities to protect areas of greater extractive values than they would have otherwise. We conclude that the success of this program offers a way forward for achieving targets in the global expansion marine protected areas.

Spatiotemporal Distribution of Dissolved Heavy Metals in Gyeonggi Bay, Korea

In this study, we investigated the spatial and temporal distribution of heavy metals and nutrients in Gyeonggi Bay, Korea, to determine their present status and seasonal variability, and to identify their sources. Two surveys (May and August 2017) covering the entire Gyeonggi Bay (15 sites) and twelve surveys over four seasons (February, May, August, and November of 2016–2018) covering the Incheon Special Management Area (7 sites) were carried out to collect surface seawaters. Three surveys (January, April, and August of 2015) were also performed to collect seawater samples at Shihwa Lake (16 sites). Although the concentration gradients of nutrient type heavy metals (e.g. copper, nickel, zinc, and cadmium) corresponded to patterns of salinity in both dry and wet seasons, there was little seasonal variability over the three years studied. However, there was evidence that heavy metals were released during mixing with freshwaters in the wet season, likely from river outflow or direct coastal inputs such as effluents from Shihwa Lake. For nutrients, whereas the conservative mixing of dissolved inorganic nitrogen and the release of dissolved inorganic phosphate and dissolved silica were observed in the wet season, the concentrations of organic particles (e.g., chlorophyll-a, particulate organic carbon, and particulate organic nitrogen) had an inverse relationship with salinity in the dry season (May). Scavenged metals (e.g., manganese and cobalt) had non-freshwater coastal sources, such as benthic remobilization from suboxic sediments, and exhibited seasonal variation; they progressively increased in concentration from winter to spring and summer, and dropped to their minimum levels in the fall, which was presumably related to variation in microbial activity in sediments. Based on their relationship with salinity, heavy metals were deduced to be derived from coastal sources such as effluents from Shihwa Lake and freshwater from the Han River.

Quantifying Ship Strike Risk to Breeding Whales in a Multiple-Use Marine Park: The Great Barrier Reef

Spatial risk assessments are an effective management tool used in multiple-use marine parks to balance the needs for conservation of natural properties and to provide for varying socio-economic demands for development. The multiple-use Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) has recently experienced substantial increases in current and proposed port expansions and subsequent shipping. Globally, large whale populations are recovering from commercial whaling and ship strike is a significant threat to some populations and a potential welfare issue for others. Within the GBRMP there is spatial conflict between the main breeding ground of the east Australian humpback whale population which overlaps the main inner shipping route that services several large natural resource export ports. The east coast humpback whale population is one of the largest humpback whale populations globally, exponentially increasing (11% per annum) close to the maximum potential rate and estimated to reach pre-exploitation population numbers in the next 4-5 years. We quantify the relative risk of ship strike to calving and mating humpback whales, with areas of highest relative risk coinciding with areas offshore of two major natural resource export ports. We found females with a dependent calf had a higher risk of ship strike compared to groups without a calf and their inshore movement and coastal dependence later in the breeding season increases their overlap with shipping although their lower relative abundance decreases risk. The formalisation of a two-way shipping route has provided little change to risk and projected risk estimates indicate a three- to five-fold increase in risk to humpback whales from ship strike over the next ten years. Currently, the whale Protection Area in the GBRMP does not cover the main mating and calving areas, whereas provisions within the legislation for establishment of a Special Management Area during the peak breeding season in high risk areas could occur. A common mitigation strategy of re-routing shipping lanes to reduce risk is not a viable option for the GBRMP due to physical spatial limitations imposed by the reef, whereas speed restrictions could be the most feasible based on current ship speeds if mitigation were deemed necessary.

Vernal Pool Conservation: Enhancing Existing Regulation Through the Creation of the Maine Vernal Pool Special Area Management Plan

Conservation of natural resources is challenging given the competing economic and ecological goals humans have for landscapes. Vernal pools in the northeastern US are seasonal, small wetlands that provide critical breeding habitat for amphibians and invertebrates adapted to temporary waters, and are exceptionally hard to conserve as their function is dependent on connections to other wetlands and upland forests. A team of researchers in Maine joined forces with a diverse array of governmental and private stakeholders to develop an alternative to existing top-down vernal pool regulation. Through creative adoption and revision of various resource management tools, they produced a vernal pool conservation mechanism, the Maine Vernal Pool Special Management Area Plan that meets the needs of diverse stakeholders from developers to ecologists. This voluntary mitigation tool uses fees from impacts to vernal pools in locally identified growth areas to fund conservation of “poolscapes” (pools plus appropriate adjacent habitat) in areas locally designated for rural use. In this case study, we identify six key features of this mechanism that illustrate the use of existing tools to balance growth and pool conservation. This case study will provide readers with key concepts that can be applied to any conservation problem: namely, how to work with diverse interests toward a common goal, how to evaluate and use existing policy tools in new ways, and how to approach solutions to sticky problems through a willingness to accept uncertainty and risk.

부산 특별관리해역 내 수영만 유역 하천수와 강우유출수에서의 용존 및 입자상 중금속 연구

부산 특별관리해역 내 수영만 유역 하천수와 강우유출수에서의 용존 및 입자상 중금속 연구

An analysis of property rights in the Special Management Area (SMA) in Tonga

The people of Tonga has been enjoying the abundance of its marine resources for centuries under an open access regime with the absence of any traditional marine tenure system. But time has changed and the population has increased, the fishing gears have been improved and more and more people are now moving from subsistence fishing to commercial fishing. These changes are posing threats to the health of the marine resources in the coastal areas causing a widespread concern among the coastal communities. This has led to the introduction and implementation of one of the management tools considered to be effective in combating the increased threats faced by the communities and the marine resources; the Special Management Area (SMA). To better understand the effectiveness of the SMAs, there is a need to understand the elements that makes it effective by analyzing the different characteristics of property rights within the SMA. These property right characteristics were proposed by Schlager and Ostrom and are employed for the analysis of the SMAs. The analysis provides an insight into the different elements and factors that contribute to the effective implementation of SMAs. Understanding the characteristics of property rights will contribute to strengthening of SMAs and improving of the benefits to the communities. It will certainly provide a basis for any review required for the SMAs.

Threshold value of Benthic Pollution Index (BPI) for a muddy healthy benthic faunal community and its application to Jinhae Bay in the southern coast of Korea

For the determination of benthic community health criteria of a biotic index, Benthic Pollution Index (BPI), the faunal data on macrobenthic community of Deukryang Bay collected in 2012 were used. Each macrobenthic fauna was classified into 4 functional groups according to their feeding and life history strategies and BPI was calculated using the abundance of fauna for these functional groups. Amphipods were the dominant faunal group belonging to Functional Group (FG) II in Deukryang Bay during all seasons. The BPI value fluctuated seasonally from 55 to 61, and the overall mean value of BPI in the reference area was 60, which was estimated as the threshold value for healthy communities. We tried to use BPI as an assessment tool for macrofaunal community health status by categorizing the BPI values into 5 grades. If the BPI value of the community is more than 60, the health status of a macrobenthic community will be assessed as ‘Excellent’ (Grade 1) and as ‘Good’ (Grade 2), if between 40 and 60, as ‘Fair’ (Grade 3), if between 30 and 40, as ‘Poor’ (Grade 4), if between 20 and 30, and finally the health status of a community will be assessed as ‘Very Poor’ (Grade 5), if the BPI value is less than 20. This assessment tool using BPI was applied to macrobenthic communities in Jinhae Bay including the Special Management Area of South Korea. In Jinhae Bay, the FG IV containing a spionid species, Paraprionospio patiens was the most dominant group. The values of BPI in Jinhae Bay were very low and ranged from 11 to 23. The ecological health status of macrobenthic communities in Jinhae Bay was ‘Very Poor’ at more than 50% of sites, especially in summer.

경관단위분류를 통한 경관가치평가 및 경관계획적 활용

This study selected Nakdong River basin zone in Daegu as an example area to conduct landscapetope classification and aesthetic value assessment of landscape according to the classified landscapetope. The main result of this research can be summed up as following. First, the result of landscapetope type classification showed 28 types of landscapetope including complex residential area (AA), natural stream type with copious vegetation (BA), forest type centered on mixed forest of soft and hardwood (EB) along with 129 types of imputed specific landscapetope. The result of the total first assessment using B-VAT showed the first grade 10 types, II grade 4 types, III grade6 types, IV grade 3 types, 5 types for V grade with the lowest value. The second assessment conducted toward the landscapetope types with the grade higher than the average (including III grade) in the result of the first assessment showed that there are 66 spaces for the sites (1a, 1b) with special meaning for aesthetic landscape evaluation. And also, there were 69 spaces for those (2a, 2b, 2c) with meaning for aesthetic landscape evaluation. The design model of this research is largely divided into improvement goal and specific execution plan. First, the improvement goal is divided into 6 categories including conservation area, complementary area, and restoration area, and the specific execution plan is divided into 14 categories including special landscape management area, general landscape management area, conservation of hill areas with optically good condition. A comprehensive master plan was suggested by directly applying the set landscape planning model to the subject place of this research.

The Effects of Place Attachment, Hypothetical Site Modifications and Use Levels on Recreation Behavior

This study integrates place attachment dimensions into a travel cost model utilizing stated preferences for various hypothetical scenarios involving site development and changes to current use levels at a Bureau of Land Management Special Recreation Management Area. We examine changes in intended behavior contingent on hypothetical scenarios and varying levels of place identity and dependence. Results suggest trip behavior to the area will either remain the same or decline in frequency given each of the hypothetical scenarios. The analysis also revealed visitors' level of place identity was significantly related to intended trip behavior while place dependence was not. These findings reveal travel cost modeling approach can incorporate both stated preferences and psychometric scaling to provide useful information for resource managers.

Characteristics and Constraints of Pollutant Load Allocation Reflected in the Total Pollutant Load Management Plans of Masan Bay Special Management Area

Characteristics and Constraints of Pollutant Load Allocation Reflected in the Total Pollutant Load Management Plans of Masan Bay Special Management Area

Category 4b Demonstration for Petroleum Hydrocarbon Impaired Waters in the Kenai River, Alaska

Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the US Environm ental Protection Agency’s (USEPA’s) supporting regulations in 40 CFR Part 130.7 require states to develop lists of waterbodies impaired by a pollutant and needing a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) (i.e., the Section 303(d) list) and to prepare a TMDL for each waterbody/pollutant combination. USEPA’s regulations also recognize that other pollution control requirements may obviate the need for a TMDL. These alternatives to TMDLs are commonly referred to as Category 4b waters as described in USEPA’s Integrated Reporting Guidance for Sections 303(d), 305(b), and 314 of the CWA. One of the most visible waterways in Category 4b is the Kenai River. The Kenai River is known worldwide for its prized King Salmon. The initial 20 miles of the lower river attracts over 700 boats per day during the peak fishing season. Water quality data for the Kenai River showed elevated petroleum hydrocarbon levels during the month of July in the lower portion of the river. A water quality assessment conducted by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) in 2003 confirmed the source of the petroleum hydrocarbon pollution was from motorboats and subsequent studies identified older, 2-stroke motors as the primary source. The waterbody was subsequently listed as impaired on ADEC’s Section 303(d) list (Category 5). As a result of the 2003 study, ADEC began meeting with Kenai River stakeholders to strategize and develop a waterbody recovery plan and take the necessary actions. By 2007, the Kenaitze Indian Tribe using USEPA Targeted Watershed Initiative Grant monies initiated a buy-back program for older, more polluting, carbureted 2-stroke motors. In 2008, Alaska adopted regulations requiring all outboard engines used in the Kenai River Special Management Area and the personal use fishery to be cleaner motors - either 4-stroke or direct fuel injection 2-stroke motors. For the 2008 reporting cycle, the ADEC assigned petroleum hydrocarbon impaired waters of the Kenai River to Category 4b. Based on water quality modeling results for the river, ADEC expects the implementation strategy will result in attainment of the petroleum hydrocarbon water quality standard by 2010. This paper presents ADEC’s demonstration for assigning these waters to Category 4b according to USEPA’s Category 4b guidance, lessons learned in developing the restoration strategy, and potential challenges for maintaining these waters in Category 4b for future 303(d) reporting cycles.

Distribution of long-toed salamanders and introduced trout in high- and low-elevation wetlands in southwestern Alberta, Canada

Several species of trout have been introduced into most wetlands within the mountain and foothill regions of southwestern Alberta, Canada. In this study, we used standard survey methods to evaluate the distribution of long-toed salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum) larvae relative to introduced trout within 27 low-elevation wetlands and 30 high-elevation wetlands in Waterton Lakes National Park and the adjacent Castle Special Management Area. Results provided indirect evidence of salamander displacement by trout. At high elevations, salamander larvae were not detected in any of the sites that contained trout. The complete allotopy between trout and long-toed salamanders within high-elevation sites supports previous studies completed within the core of this species' range, further documenting the widespread negative impacts of introduced trout on native amphibians in upper basins. Similarly, salamander larvae were present in each of the low-elevation wetlands that lacked trout; they co-occurred in only 4 of 27 low-elevation wetlands. Allotopy within lower elevation sites is particularly important from a conservation perspective because, relative to populations in high-elevation wetlands, these populations tend to contain individuals with rapid growth and high dispersal rates.

Combining carbon sequestration objectives with timber management planning

This paper presents a new approachto assessing carbon (C) sequestration incommercial forests at spatial scalesrelevant to forest managers. The approachcombines C-sequestration objectives withtimber and non-timber (i.e., wildlifehabitat) management objectives. As ademonstration, the approach is applied to a105,000 ha special management area innorthern New Brunswick, Canada over asimulated time horizon of 80 years. Carbonstock calculations are carried out bymultiplying a series of simple woodvolume-to-C conversion factors to woodsupply projections generated with theWoodstock™ wood supply (RemSoft Inc.) andCWIZ™ linear programming software. Basicinput requirements to the wood supply modelinclude (i) current forest stand inventoryand forest age structure, (ii) growth andyield curves for naturally developingstands, (iii) modified growth and yieldcurves to describe post-treatment standresponse, (iv) non-timber objectives, and(v) specific harvesting prescriptions,including extent of application area andintensity. Spatial blocking of stands iscarried out by importing the treatmentschedule from the 80-year plan and byproviding spatial constraints such asgreen-up delays and adjacency rules over a25-year planning horizon. Model projectionindicates that C stock in the forestof the special management area willincrease in the next 40 years under theproposed harvesting plan and start todecrease thereafter. Under theno-disturbance scenario (both natural andman-made), the carbon stock in the forestwill increase for the next 60 years andstart to decline thereafter. For the wholeplanning period, carbon stock in the forestfollowing current industrial practices willbe less than naturally growing forestwithout any form of disturbance.Although model calculations are notexact, combining C objectives with timbermanagement objectives provides a goodframework for assessing C sequestration incommercial forests, given the excellentquality of the forest input data regardingabove ground biomass. Improvements tomodelled C-sequestration projections maytake place as scientific information aboutthe details of the C cycle in managedforests becomes available.