Spatial Patterns Of Genetic Differentiation Research Articles

Captive‐bred ancestry affects spatial patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation in brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations

AbstractIntraspecific genetic diversity is heterogeneously distributed in natural landscapes and often forms repeatable spatial patterns. For instance, in rivers, genetic diversity increases towards downstream areas, whereas genetic differentiation increases in isolated upstream areas. Nonetheless, these patterns can be modified by human‐induced perturbations, and documenting the extent to which human activities alter these natural patterns is important for conservation. Among the human pressures that affect freshwater biodiversity, stocking natural populations with captive‐bred strains is a common practice worldwide that can strongly alter the genetic integrity of wild populations.The main objectives of this study were to document the spatial distribution of captive‐bred ancestry in brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations from four French basins having been stocked according to different practices, and to quantify for each basin the effect of captive‐bred ancestry on the spatial distribution of genetic diversity and differentiation. The four basins were sampled along their upstream–downstream gradient, and a total of 1,686 individuals were genotyped at 192 single nucleotide polymorphism loci.For all basins, individuals with a strong assignment to the captive strain were mostly found in upper reaches, although the average proportion of captive‐bred ancestry varied strikingly among rivers (from 1.9 to 58.7%). Although spatial patterns of genetic differentiation were not affected by introgression and showed an expected increase with increasing distances from the river mouth in all basins, there was evidence that the classical pattern of downstream increase in genetic diversity was reversed when considering highly introgressed populations.These findings demonstrate that the stocking of captive‐bred strains can strongly modify natural spatial patterns of diversity, even when stocking occurred many generations ago and has now ended. The study illustrates the major impacts of humans on intraspecific biodiversity patterns, and emphasizes the importance of conservation plans that take into account this artificial distribution of genetic diversity.

Effects of social organization and elevation on spatial genetic structure in a montane ant

Studying patterns of population structure across the landscape sheds light on dispersal and demographic processes, which helps to inform conservation decisions. Here, we study how social organization and landscape factors affect spatial patterns of genetic differentiation in an ant species living in mountainous regions. Using genome‐wide SNP markers, we assess population structure in the Alpine silver ant, Formica selysi. This species has two social forms controlled by a supergene. The monogyne form has one queen per colony, while the polygyne form has multiple queens per colony. The two social forms co‐occur in the same populations. For both social forms, we found a strong pattern of isolation‐by‐distance across the Alps. Within regions, genetic differentiation between populations was weaker for the monogyne form than for the polygyne form. We suggest that this pattern is due to higher dispersal and effective population sizes in the monogyne form. In addition, we found stronger isolation‐by‐distance and lower genetic diversity in high elevation populations, compared to lowland populations, suggesting that gene flow between F. selysi populations in the Alps occurs mostly through riparian corridors along lowland valleys. Overall, this survey highlights the need to consider intraspecific polymorphisms when assessing population connectivity and calls for special attention to the conservation of lowland habitats in mountain regions.

Population structure, patterns of natal dispersal and demographic history in a declining aerial insectivore, the purple martin Progne subis

Genetic variation is a fundamental component of biodiversity, and studying population structure, gene flow and demographic history can help guide conservation strategies for many species. Like other aerial insectivores, the purple martin Progne subis is in decline, and yet their genetic background remains largely unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we assessed population structure in the nominate eastern subspecies (P. s. subis) with relation to natal dispersal and examined historical genetic patterns in all three subspecies (P. s. subis, P. s. arboricola, P. s. hesperia) across their North American breeding range by estimating effective population sizes over time. We used next‐generation sequencing strategies for genomic analyses, integrating whole‐genome resequencing data with continent‐wide band encounter records to examine natal dispersal. We documented population structure across P. s. subis, with the highest differentiation between the northern (Alberta) and more southern colonies and following patterns of isolation‐by‐distance. Consistent with spatial patterns of genetic differentiation, we also found greater longitudinal than latitudinal natal dispersal distances, signifying potential latitudinal constraints on gene flow. Earlier contractions in effective population sizes in the western P. s. arboricola and P. s. hesperia compared to the eastern P. s. subis subspecies suggest these subspecies originated from two different glacial refugia. Together, these findings support latitudinal distinction in P. s. subis, and elucidate the origin of subspecies differentiation, highlighting the importance of conserving populations across the range to maximize genetic diversity and adaptive potential in the purple martin.

Landscape genomics of the streamside salamander: Implications for species management in the face of environmental change

Understanding spatial patterns of genetic differentiation and local adaptation is critical in a period of rapid environmental change. Climate change and anthropogenic development have led to population declines and shifting geographic distributions in numerous species. The streamside salamander, Ambystoma barbouri, is an endemic amphibian with a small geographic range that predominantly inhabits small, ephemeral streams. As A. barbouri is listed as near‐threatened by the IUCN, we describe range‐wide patterns of genetic differentiation and adaptation to assess the species’ potential to respond to environmental change. We use outlier scans and genetic‐environment association analyses to identify genomic variation putatively underlying local adaptation across the species’ geographic range. We find evidence for adaptation with a polygenic architecture and a set of candidate SNPs that identify genes putatively contributing to local adaptation. Our results build on earlier work that suggests that some A. barbouri populations are locally adapted despite evidence for asymmetric gene flow between the range core and periphery. Taken together, the body of work describing the evolutionary genetics of range limits in A. barbouri suggests that the species may be unlikely to respond naturally to environmental challenges through a range shift or in situ adaptation. We suggest that management efforts such as assisted migration may be necessary in future.

Complex spatial patterns of genetic differentiation in the Caribbean mustard hill coral Porites astreoides

Complex spatial patterns of genetic differentiation in the Caribbean mustard hill coral Porites astreoides

Genomic insights into the origin of trans‐Mediterranean disjunct distributions

AbstractAimTwo main biogeographical hypotheses have been proposed to explain the Mediterranean‐Turanian disjunct distributions exhibited by numerous steppe‐dwelling organisms, namely (a) dispersal during the Messinian salinity crisis (∼5.96–5.33 Ma) followed by range fragmentation and vicariance, and (b) Pleistocene colonization and recent processes of population subdivision (<2 Ma). Despite the two hypotheses postulate the role of climatic alterations and changes in landmass configuration on determining such disjunct distributions, estimates of the timing of lineage diversification have not been complemented so far with spatially‐explicit tests providing independent evidence on the proximate processes underlying geographical patterns of population genetic connectivity/fragmentation.LocationMediterranean‐Turanian region.TaxonSaltmarsh band‐winged grasshopper (Mioscirtus wagneri).MethodsWe integrate different sources of genetic (mtDNA and ddRADseq) and spatial information (configuration of emerged lands and niche modelling) to evaluate competing hypotheses of lineage diversification in the saltmarsh band‐winged grasshopper, a halophile species showing a classical Mediterranean‐Turanian disjunct distribution.ResultsPhylogenomic analyses reveal the presence of two North African cryptic lineages and support that trans‐Mediterranean populations of the species diverged in the Pleistocene, with evidence of post‐Messinian permeability of the Strait of Gibraltar to gene flow likely associated with sea level drops during glacial periods. Accordingly, spatial patterns of genetic differentiation are best explained by a scenario of population connectivity defined by the configuration of emerged landmasses and environmentally suitable habitats during glacial periods, a time when effective population sizes of the species peaked as inferred by genomic‐based demographic reconstructions.Main conclusionsOur results support post‐Messinian colonization and Pleistocene diversification as the biogeographical scenario best explaining the trans‐Mediterranean disjunct distributions of halophilous organisms.

Westward range expansion from middle latitudes explains the Mississippi River discontinuity in a forest herb of eastern North America.

It is often expected that temperate plants have expanded their geographical ranges northward from primarily southern refugia. Evidence for this hypothesis is mixed in eastern North American species, and there is increasing support for colonization from middle latitudes. We studied genome-wide patterns of variation in RADseq loci to test hypotheses concerning range expansion in a North American forest herb (Campanula americana). First, spatial patterns of genetic differentiation were determined. Then phylogenetic relationships and divergence times were estimated. Spatial signatures of genetic drift were also studied to identify the directionality of recent range expansion and its geographical origins. Finally, spatially explicit scenarios for the spread of plants across the landscape were compared, using variation in the population mutation parameter and Tajima's D. We found strong longitudinal subdivision, with populations clustering into groups west and east of the Mississippi River. While the southeastern region was probably part of a diverse Pleistocene refugium, there is little evidence that range expansion involved founders from these southern locales. Instead, declines in genetic diversity and the loss of rare alleles support a westward colonization wave from a middle latitude refugium near the southern Appalachian Mountains, with subsequent expansion from a Pleistocene staging ground in the Mississippi River Valley (0.51-1.27 million years ago). These analyses implicate stepping stone colonization from middle latitudes as an important mechanism of species range expansion in eastern North America. This study further demonstrates the utility of population genetics as a tool to infer the routes travelled by organisms during geographical range expansion.

Genomic analysis reveals neutral and adaptive patterns that challenge the current management regime for East Atlantic cod Gadus morhua L.

Challenging long‐held perceptions of fish management units can help to protect vulnerable stocks. When a fishery consisting of multiple genetic stocks is managed as a single unit, overexploitation and depletion of minor genetic units can occur. Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) is an economically and ecologically important marine species across the North Atlantic. The application of new genomic resources, including SNP arrays, allows us to detect and explore novel structure within specific cod management units. In Norwegian waters, coastal cod (i.e. those not undertaking extensive migrations) are divided into two arbitrary management units defined by ICES: one between 62° and 70°N (Norwegian coastal cod; NCC) and one between 58° and 62°N (Norwegian coastal south; NCS). Together, these capture a fishery area of >25,000 km2 containing many spawning grounds. To assess whether these geographic units correctly represent genetic stocks, we analysed spawning cod of NCC and NCS for more than 8,000 SNPs along with samples of Russian White Sea cod, north‐east Arctic cod (NEAC: the largest Atlantic stock), and outgroup samples representing the Irish and Faroe Sea's. Our analyses revealed large differences in spatial patterns of genetic differentiation across the genome and revealed a complex biological structure within NCC and NCS. Haplotype maps from four chromosome sets show regional specific SNP indicating a complex genetic structure. The current management plan dividing the coastal cod into only two management units does not accurately reflect the genetic units and needs to be revised. Coastal cod in Norway, while highly heterogenous, is also genetically distinct from neighbouring stocks in the north (NEAC), west (Faroe Island) and the south. The White Sea cod are highly divergent from other cod, possibly yielding support to the earlier notion of subspecies rank.

Strong genetic structure among populations of the tick Ixodes ricinus across its range

Ixodes ricinus is the most common and widely distributed tick species in Europe, responsible for several zoonotic diseases, including Lyme borreliosis. Population genetics of disease vectors is a useful tool for understanding the spread of pathogens and infection risks. Despite the threat to the public health due to the climate-driven distribution changes of I. ricinus, the genetic structure of tick populations, though essential for understanding epidemiology, remains unclear. Previous studies have demonstrated weak to no apparent spatial pattern of genetic differentiation between European populations. Here, we analysed the population genetic structure of 497 individuals from 28 tick populations sampled from 20 countries across Europe, the Middle-East, and northern Africa. We analysed 125 SNPs loci after quality control. We ran Bayesian and multivariate hierarchical clustering analyses to identify and describe clusters of genetically related individuals. Both clustering methods support the identification of three spatially-structured clusters. Individuals from the south and north-western parts of Eurasia form a separated cluster from northern European populations, while central European populations are a mix between the two groups. Our findings have important implications for understanding the dispersal processes that shape the spread of zoonotic diseases under anthropogenic global changes.

Beyond isolation by distance: What best explains functional connectivity among populations of three sympatric plant species in an ancient terrestrial island system?

AbstractAimUnderstanding how landscape features affect gene flow is critical to connectivity conservation and restoration management. Here, we examined the relationship between functional connectivity (gene flow) and structural connectivity (area and spatial configuration of habitats) in three co‐occurring short‐range plant taxa in an ancient terrestrial island system.LocationLow‐altitude mountain range south‐western Australia.MethodsWe analysed spatial patterns of genetic differentiation at nuclear microsatellite loci using Bayesian clustering. Circuit theory modelling was used to generate all possible pathways that connect populations as resistance distance matrices based on two surfaces for each taxon. The first surface assumes a flat terrain and tests whether genetic similarity declines only with distance—isolation by distance (IBD). The second surface is habitat suitability based on species distribution modelling (SDM), which tests whether genetic similarity is a function of connected and suitable habitat. Multiple matrix regression with randomization was used to test the significance of the resistance distance matrices at predicting two metrics of genetic differentiation (FST and DEST). Variance explained was partitioned using redundancy analysis.ResultsGenetic structure for the insect‐pollinated taxa—Acacia adinophylla—and Tetratheca aphylla subsp. aphylla was at similar spatial scales. Unexpectedly, a higher level of genetic structure was found in the wind‐pollinated Lepidosperma bungalbin. IBD best explained the gene flow of A. adinophylla (R2 = 0.41–0.43) with partial support provided by habitat suitability (R2 = 0.04–0.07). In contrast, connectivity by habitat suitability was highest for T. aphylla subsp. aphylla (R2 = 0.56–0.59). Drivers of L. bungalbin connectivity were inconsistent between the two measures of genetic differentiation.Main conclusionsGene flow is facilitated by different factors for the three taxa. Habitat fragmentation would most strongly impede gene flow for T. aphylla subsp. aphylla. Geographical distance cannot be assumed as the sole or best determinant of gene flow among populations, nor can findings be generalized to coexisting taxa.

Polymorphic nuclear markers for coastal plant species with dynamic geographic distributions, the rock samphire (Crithmum maritimum) and the vulnerable dune pansy (Viola tricolor subsp. curtisii).

Identifying spatial patterns of genetic differentiation across a species range is critical to set up conservation and restoration decision-making. This is especially timely, since global change triggers shifts in species' geographic distribution and in the geographical variation of mating system and patterns of genetic differentiation, with varying consequences at the trailing and leading edges of a species' distribution. Using 454 pyrosequencing, we developed nuclear microsatellite loci for two plant species showing a strictly coastal geographical distribution and contrasting range dynamics: the expanding rock samphire (Crithmum maritimum, 21 loci) and the highly endangered and receding dune pansy (Viola tricolor subsp. curtisii, 12 loci). Population genetic structure was then assessed by genotyping more than 100 individuals from four populations of each of the two target species. Rock samphire displayed high levels of genetic differentiation (FST = 0.38), and a genetic structure typical of a mostly selfing species (FIS ranging from 0.16 to 0.58). Populations of dune pansy showed a less pronounced level of population structuring (FST = 0.25) and a genotypic structure more suggestive of a mixed-mating system when excluding two loci with heterozygote excess. These results demonstrate that the genetic markers developed here are useful to assess the mating system of populations of these two species. They will be tools of choice to investigate phylogeographical patterns and variation in mating system over the geographical distribution ranges for two coastal plant species that are subject to dynamic evolution due to rapid contemporary global change.

Regression commonality analyses on hierarchical genetic distances

Landscape genetics is emerging as an important way of supporting decision‐making in landscape management, in response to the deterioration of matrix permeability due to habitat loss and fragmentation. In line with unremitting methodological developments in landscape genetics, a new analytical procedure was recently proposed as a way of evaluating the effects of landscape gradients on genetic structures. This procedure is based on the computation of inter‐individual hierarchical genetic distances (HGD), a metric of genetic differentiation taking into account the hierarchical structure in populations as inferred from clustering algorithms. HGD can be used as dependent variables in multivariate regressions to assess the effects of various landscape predictors on spatial patterns of genetic differentiation. However, multicollinearity may obscure the interpretation of multivariate regressions. We illustrate how regression commonality analyses (CA), a detailed variance partitioning procedure that can be used to deal with multicollinearity issues, can thoroughly improve our understanding of landscape connectivity when HGD are used as a dependent variable, with the red deer Cervus elaphus as an empirical example. Using logistic regression commonality analyses on HGD, we showed that semi‐natural open areas, transportation infrastructures and, to a lesser extent, urban areas and rivers, were associated with an increase in hierarchical genetic differentiation in red deer. Regressions based on HGD provided detailed results that could not have been obtained with regressions based on standard genetic distances, with notably additional insights as to the possible influence of linear features such as roads and highways on landscape connectivity. Furthermore, CA helped identify synergistic associations among variables as well as suppressors, thus resolving inconsistencies among hierarchical levels and revealing spurious correlations that may have gone unnoticed in the course of classical regression analyses. We thus recommend the use of regression commonality analysis on hierarchical genetic distances as a promising statistical tool for landscape geneticists.

Biophysical connectivity explains population genetic structure in a highly dispersive marine species

Connectivity, the exchange of individuals among locations, is a fundamental ecological process that explains how otherwise disparate populations interact. For most marine organisms, dispersal occurs primarily during a pelagic larval phase that connects populations. We paired population structure from comprehensive genetic sampling and biophysical larval transport modeling to describe how spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) population differentiation is related to biological oceanography. A total of 581 lobsters were genotyped with 11 microsatellites from ten locations around the greater Caribbean. The overall F ST of 0.0016 (P = 0.005) suggested low yet significant levels of structuring among sites. An isolation by geographic distance model did not explain spatial patterns of genetic differentiation in P. argus (P = 0.19; Mantel r = 0.18), whereas a biophysical connectivity model provided a significant explanation of population differentiation (P = 0.04; Mantel r = 0.47). Thus, even for a widely dispersing species, dispersal occurs over a continuum where basin-wide larval retention creates genetic structure. Our study provides a framework for future explorations of wide-scale larval dispersal and marine connectivity by integrating empirical genetic research and probabilistic modeling.

Geographically weighted regression as a generalized Wombling to detect barriers to gene flow

Barriers to gene flow play an important role in structuring populations, especially in human-modified landscapes, and several methods have been proposed to detect such barriers. However, most applications of these methods require a relative large number of individuals or populations distributed in space, connected by vertices from Delaunay or Gabriel networks. Here we show, using both simulated and empirical data, a new application of geographically weighted regression (GWR) to detect such barriers, modeling the genetic variation as a "local" linear function of geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude). In the GWR, standard regression statistics, such as R(2) and slopes, are estimated for each sampling unit and thus are mapped. Peaks in these local statistics are then expected close to the barriers if genetic discontinuities exist, capturing a higher rate of population differentiation among neighboring populations. Isolation-by-Distance simulations on a longitudinally warped lattice revealed that higher local slopes from GWR coincide with the barrier detected with Monmonier algorithm. Even with a relatively small effect of the barrier, the power of local GWR in detecting the east-west barriers was higher than 95%. We also analyzed empirical data of genetic differentiation among tree populations of Dipteryx alata and Eugenia dysenterica Brazilian Cerrado. GWR was applied to the principal coordinate of the pairwise FST matrix based on microsatellite loci. In both simulated and empirical data, the GWR results were consistent with discontinuities detected by Monmonier algorithm, as well as with previous explanations for the spatial patterns of genetic differentiation for the two species. Our analyses reveal how this new application of GWR can viewed as a generalized Wombling in a continuous space and be a useful approach to detect barriers and discontinuities to gene flow.

Genetic differentiation within multiple common grassland plants supports seed transfer zones for ecological restoration

Summary Ecological restoration of grasslands is increasingly based on regional seeds derived from predefined seed transfer zones. However, the degree and spatial pattern of genetic differentiation among provenances of different seed transfer zones is largely unknown. We assessed the genetic differentiation among eight out of 22 German seed transfer zones for seven common grassland species (Arrhenatherum elatius, Centaurea jacea, Daucus carota, Galium album, Hypochaeris radicata, Knautia arvensis and Lychnis flos‐cuculi) using AFLP markers. We analysed genetic population structure with AMOVA and Bayesian cluster analysis and tested for isolation by distance and isolation by environment. In all of the investigated species, almost all pairs of provenances were genetically differentiated. Bayesian cluster analysis revealed species‐specific numbers and spatial patterns of gene pools, with between two (Arrhenatherum) and eight clusters (Lychnis). Most investigated seed transfer zones represented a unique gene pool in the majority of the species. We found isolation by distance in four species, isolation by environment, driven by climatic seasonality, in three species, and a lack of both in three species. Thus, the observed genetic differentiation appears to be caused by both neutral and adaptive processes. Synthesis and applications. Our study shows that grassland plants are indeed strongly genetically differentiated across Germany supporting the strategy of seed transfer zones for ecological restoration. Although the predefined seed transfer zones are unlikely to match the exact genetic structure of many species, they serve their purpose by capturing a substantial amount of intraspecific genetic variation across species.

Genetic diversity and biogeographical patterns of Caulerpa prolifera across the Mediterranean and Mediterranean/Atlantic transition zone

Knowledge of spatial patterns of genetic differentiation between populations is key to understanding processes in evolutionary history of biological species. Caulerpa is a genus of marine green algae, which has attracted much public attention, mainly because of the impacts of invasive species in the Mediterranean. However, very little is known about the ecological and evolutionary history of the Mediterranean native Caulerpa prolifera, a species which is currently found at sites distributed worldwide. C. prolifera provides a good model to explore the patterns of genetic diversity at different scales across the Mediterranean and Atlantic area. This study aims to investigate the biogeographical patterns of diversity and differentiation of C. prolifera in the Mediterranean, with special focus on the Mediterranean/Atlantic transition zone. We used two nuclear (ITS rDNA and the hypervariable microsatellite locus CaPr_J2) and one chloroplast (tufA) DNA markers on samples of C. prolifera from its entire range. Analyses of 51 sequences of the cpDNA tufA of C. prolifera, 87 ITS2 sequences and genotypes of 788 ramets of C. prolifera for the locus CaPr_J2 revealed three different biogeographical areas: West Atlantic, East Atlantic and a larger area representing the Mediterranean, the Mediterranean/Atlantic transition zone and a Pacific site (Bali). It was found out that the Mediterranean/Atlantic transition zone is a biogeographical boundary for C. prolifera. A lack of connectivity was revealed between Atlantic and Mediterranean types, and identical sequences found in the Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific suggest either recent gene flow along the Red Sea connection or a possible ancient Indo-Pacific origin.

HOT SPOTS OF GENETIC DIVERSITY DESCENDED FROM MULTIPLE PLEISTOCENE REFUGIA IN AN ALPINE UNGULATE

Species that inhabit naturally fragmented environments are expected to be spatially structured and exhibit reduced genetic diversity at the periphery of their range. Patterns of differentiation may also reflect historical processes such as recolonization from glacial refugia. We examined the relative importance of these factors in shaping the spatial patterns of genetic differentiation across the range of an alpine specialist, the North American mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus). Contrary to fossil evidence that suggests a single southern refugium, we detected evidence for additional refugia in northern British Columbia and the Alaskan coast using both mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA. A core area of elevated genetic diversity characterized both regions, and molecular dating suggested a recent Pleistocene split was followed by demographic expansion. Across their range, mountain goats were highly genetically structured and displayed the expected pattern of declining diversity toward the periphery. Gene flow was high within contiguous mountain ranges, but cross-assignments paradoxically suggest that long-distance contemporary dispersal movements are not uncommon. These results improve our understanding of how historical vicariance and contemporary fragmentation influence population differentiation, and have implications for conserving the adaptive potential of alpine populations and habitat.

Spatial Patterns of Genetic Differentiation in Brachionus calyciflorus Species Complex

To understand spatial patterns of genetic differentiation in the Brachionus calyciflorus species complex, the rDNA ITS regions of 124 rotifer clones collected from eight geographic regions in East China were sequenced and analyzed. A total of 73 haplotypes were defined, and were grouped into three clades by the phylogenetic trees. The divergences of ITS sequence among the three clades ranged from 4.2% to 25.3%, indicating the occurrence of three cryptic species (cryptic species I, cryptic species II and cryptic species III). The sympatric co-occurrence of these cryptic species was observed at Guangzhou, Danzhou and Wuhu. The nucleotide diversity in B. calyciflorus complex was higher, and so was haplotype diversity. Within cryptic species III, the higher genetic differentiation might be attributed to fragmentation and restricted gene flow. In addition, the rapid increase of colonizers after an ambiguous glacial bottleneck might interfere with effective gene flow and accelerate genetic differentiation of geographic populations. The nested clade analysis suggested to some extent the geographic structure, and the non-significant correlation existed between the geographic distance and the average pairwise difference between populations (Da) as well as Fst. The Younger Dryas(YD) Event after the last full glacial period might has considerable effect on the patterns of geographic structure and distribution of cryptic B. calyciflorus species. During the YD event, the three cryptic species probably retreated and co-occurred in multiple relict refugia to the south of Nanling area. Long-distance colonization possibly coupled with subsequent fragmentation might be the main reason of the current patterns of geographic structure. The geographic distribution of B. calyciflorus complex on a global scale might be attributed to the motion of continental plates.

Spatial Trends of Genetic Variation of Domestic Ruminants in Europe

The introduction of livestock species in Europe has been followed by various genetic events, which created a complex spatial pattern of genetic differentiation. Spatial principal component (sPCA) analysis and spatial metric multidimensional scaling (sMDS) incorporate geography in multivariate analysis. This method was applied to three microsatellite data sets for 45 goat breeds, 46 sheep breeds, and 101 cattle breeds from Europe, Southwest Asia, and India. The first two sPCA coordinates for goat and cattle, and the first sPCA coordinate of sheep, correspond to the coordinates of ordinary PCA analysis. However, higher sPCA coordinates suggest, for all three species, additional spatial structuring. The goat is the most geographically structured species, followed by cattle. For all three species, the main genetic cline is from southeast to northwest, but other geographic patterns depend on the species. We propose sPCA and sMDS to be useful tools for describing the correlation of genetic variation with geography.

Spatial patterns of genetic differentiation in Brachionus calyciflorus species complex collected from East China in summer

In this study, the mtDNA COI genes of 124 individuals in Brachionus calyciflorus complex were sequenced and analyzed. Overall, 84 mtDNA haplotypes were defined, and were split into three clades by the phylogenetic trees. The divergences of COI gene sequence among the three clades ranged from 11.4 to 22.5%, indicating the occurrence of three cryptic species (cryptic species 1, cryptic species 2, and cryptic species 3). Within cryptic species 3, a remarkable degree of differentiation (Fst = 0.0947) might be attributable to habitat fragmentation, restricted gene flow, and founder effect, most probably together with local adaptation. The more shared haplotypes were observed, and a non-significant correlation existed between geographic and genetic distance, suggesting that some ancestral haplotypes might be involved in a past range expansion, and as founders give a similar distribution pattern among geographic populations. The networks were also in agreement with the pattern of genetic differentiation in B. calyciflorus species complex revealed by molecular phylogeny. The nested clade analysis suggested a slight geographic structure in the network I, network II, and the highest nesting clade levels within the network III. Under the possible effect of the Younger Dryas Event, the three cryptic species might have survived in multiple relict refugia throughout the south of China. The co-occurrence of cryptic species 2 and 3 might be found in Guangzhou and Hainan due to the possible interference of the barrier and contiguous range expansion. After the Younger Dryas Event, cryptic species 3 with high colonization ability might have arrived and colonized whole habitats at first, and reduce effective gene flow among cryptic species, thus effectively increasing persistence of founder events. Cryptic species 2 might, respectively, have expanded their ranges into Wuhu and Nanjing regions only because of the probable barrier of the Yangtze River, its weak colonization abilities and the ‘priority effects’ of cryptic species 3. Cryptic species 1 distributed exclusively in Danzhou probably failed to expand its ranges into mainland China because of small population size, weaker dispersal capacity, and the barrier of the Qiongzhou Strait.