Spatial Mosaic Research Articles

Climatic and disturbance impacts on temperate rainforest development since ∼18 ka in central-west Isla Grande de Chiloé (42.7°S)

Understanding the role of disturbance regimes on terrestrial ecosystems is often compounded by the paucity of time series sufficiently long and detailed to capture triggering events and the sequence of changes in species composition, community structure and dynamics along a time continuum until the present. Adding complexity to this problem, disturbance regimes and the distribution/competitive interactions of participating species may vary in time with shifts in mean climatic conditions and variability. Here we present results from sediment cores we collected from small closed-basin lakes near the Pacific coast of central Isla Grande de Chiloé, a sector with the lowest seasonality and recurrence of explosive volcanic events in Northwestern Patagonia (NWP). Our aim is examining vegetation development since the last glaciation and exploring potential climatic and disturbance impacts. We found rapid establishment of closed-canopy rainforests, which have persisted with little variation in terms of physiognomy until the present. Significant changes in species composition, structure, dynamics, and rates of change are evident over the last ∼18,000 years, along with fire maxima at ∼16.7 ka, ∼12.7 ka, between ∼11.7-9 ka, from ∼2 ka to the present, and minima in the interim. Fires precede major increases in disturbance favored taxa, which correspond in timing with fire activity maxima at NWP scale. The most recent ∼2000 years coincide with the highest number and ubiquity of human occupations at central-west and NWP scale, raising the possibility that fires were driven by human activities near our study sites. We detect a conspicuous increase in disturbance-favored trees ∼150 years after deposition of the Puma Verde Tephra (∼8.3 ka) and interpret their subsequent maintenance by frequent blowdown events after ∼7.5 ka in exposed sectors of the Coastal Range. We posit that enhanced storminess driven by stronger Southern Westerly Winds since ∼7.5 ka has favored early successional opportunistic trees in detriment of old-growth forests dominated by shade-tolerant species, generating a spatial mosaic of forest patches or gaps in different stages of recovery.

The Influence of Fragmented Landscapes on Speciation.

In the face of unprecedented global transformations, unraveling the intricate mechanisms governing biodiversity patterns is imperative for predicting and interpreting species responses. An important element in this interplay is fragmentation and the spatial mosaic or arrangement of suitable sites within the landscape. Beyond its well-documented impact on biodiversity loss, fragmented landscapes also influence the origin of biodiversity, by influencing speciation dynamics. This research employs a model that integrates spatial configuration and dispersal abilities of individuals to investigate the impact of landscape configuration on species' evolutionary trajectories. Specifically, we propose a microevolutionary model where individuals are characterized by their dispersal ability and a genome, allowing population evolution and diversification. Space is explicitly characterized by suitable and unsuitable sites that define fragmented landscapes. Our model demonstrates how intermediate dispersal abilities enhance diversification. However, simulations of more fragmented landscapes result in a lower total number of individuals and a lower percentage of occupied sites by individuals, particularly when species have limited dispersal abilities. Furthermore, we have found that intermediate levels of fragmentation can stimulate greater species richness, while higher levels of speciation and extinction events tend to occur under higher fragmentations. Our results also show a non-monotonic dependence of richness on dispersal, supporting the intermediate dispersal hypothesis as promotor of diversification, demonstrating the synergistic effects of landscape configuration and species dispersal ability in the processes of speciation, extinction, and diversification. This impact of fragmentation poses a real challenge for biodiversity in the context of a dynamic world.

Mosaic of local adaptation between white clover and rhizobia along an urbanization gradient

Abstract Urbanization frequently alters the biotic and abiotic environmental context. Variation in both the biotic and abiotic environment can result in selection mosaics that lead to locally adapted phenotypes. Ecological changes to urban environments can result in evolutionary responses across a diverse array of plants and animals, but the effects of urbanization on local adaptation and coevolution between species remain largely unstudied. Using a common garden experiment of 30 populations and 1080 plants, we tested for local adaptation in the mutualism between white clover (Trifolium repens) and rhizobia (Rhizobium leguminosarum symbiovar trifolii) along an urbanization gradient. We asked: (Q1) are white clover and rhizobia locally adapted? (Q2) Does nitrogen (N) addition mediate the strength of local adaptation? (Q3) Is the strength of local adaptation in host plants related to the strength of local adaptation in rhizobia, as expected if white clover and rhizobia are coadapting? And (Q4) how does the degree of local adaptation vary with urbanization? We found evidence for local adaptation for both white clover and rhizobia, with stronger signatures of local adaptation for rhizobia than white clover (Q1). While N addition positively affected plant biomass and negatively affected nodule density, N addition did not consistently mediate patterns of local adaptation (Q2). The strength of local adaptation was positively related between white clover and rhizobia under N addition, suggesting that soil N mediates coadaptation between white clover and rhizobia (Q3). We did not find a consistent relationship between measures of urbanization and local adaptation (Q4). Additionally, fitness responses for white clover and rhizobia were unrelated to Rhizobium abundance and local adaptation was unrelated to the broader bacterial microbiome in the soil inoculants or root endosphere. Synthesis. Our results show a spatial mosaic in local adaptation, with stronger local adaptation for rhizobia than white clover. While urbanization does influence the ecology of plant–microbe interactions, our study suggests urbanization does not disrupt local adaptation and coevolution among mutualists.

Consequences of kelp forest ecosystem shifts and predictors of persistence through multiple stressors.

Ecological communities can be stable over multiple generations, or rapidly shift into structurally and functionally different configurations. In kelp forest ecosystems, overgrazing by sea urchins can abruptly shift forests into alternative states that are void of macroalgae and primarily dominated by actively grazing sea urchins. Beginning in 2014, a sea urchin outbreak along the central coast of California resulted in a patchy mosaic of remnant forests interspersed with sea urchin barrens. In this study, we used a 14-year subtidal monitoring dataset of invertebrates, algae, and fishes to explore changes in community structure associated with the loss of forests. We found that the spatial mosaic of barrens and forests resulted in a region-wide shift in community structure. However, the magnitude of kelp forest loss and taxonomic-level consequences were spatially heterogeneous. Taxonomic diversity declined across the region, but there were no declines in richness for any group, suggesting compositional redistribution. Baseline ecological and environmental conditions, and sea urchin behaviour, explained the persistence of forests through multiple stressors. These results indicate that spatial heterogeneity in preexisting ecological and environmental conditions can explain patterns of community change.

Biotic interactions vary across species' ranges and are likely conserved through geological time

AbstractAimThe evolutionary interactions between western spadefoot toads (genus Spea) represent a textbook example of character displacement, facilitated by dietary specialization of one Spea species on fairy shrimp (Anostraca) when all three co‐occur. The aim of this study is to understand the covariation between predator (Spea) and prey (Anostraca) range shifts in response to climate change oscillations, and whether biotic interactions can be used to project species distribution models on different time scales when studying species with dietary specialization. Taxon: Amphibia: Spea spp. and Crustacea: Anostraca.LocationNorth America.MethodsUsing multiple modelling techniques, we first estimated the potential distribution of central and western North American fairy shrimp species (Crustacea: Anostraca) and two western spadefoot toad species (Spea bombifrons and Spea multiplicata). We then created a shrimp species richness map by aggregating individual species estimates. Third, we studied the relationship between the probability of spadefoot toad presence and fairy shrimp species richness during the present and Last Glacial Maximum conditions. Finally, we estimated the strength and direction of the co‐occurrence between spadefoot toads and fairy shrimp sampled at the level of entire predicted range and at the regional level (allopatric and sympatric).ResultsFirst, the same abiotic environmental variables shape spadefoot toad and fairy shrimp species' distributions in central and western North America across time. Second, areas of sympatry of Spea bombifrons and Spea multiplicata correspond with dry conditions and higher shrimp richness. Finally, the spatial patterns of predator–prey co‐occurrence are highly variable across geography, forming a spatial mosaic over the species' ranges.Main ConclusionPredator–prey relationships form a spatial mosaic across geography and species ranges. Including biotic interactions into species distribution estimates for organisms with dietary specialization is highly recommended. Biotic interactions can be projected across different time frames for organisms with dietary specialization as they are likely conserved.

Fauna and biotopic distribution of Chrysomelidae (Coleoptera) in the Shaitan-Tau State Nature Reserve, Russia

Research on taxonomically diverse groups of insects are an important component of studying biodiversity in Protected Areas of various ranks. Based on the results of original studies (2017–2020), this paper presents for the first time data on the Chrysomelidae family and its species composition in the Shaitan-Tau State Nature Reserve, Russia. The study area is located in the south of the forest-steppe zone of the low mountains of the Southern Urals in the Orenburg Region, Russia. Currently, this Chrysomelidae fauna is one of the most studied ones in Protected Areas of the Southern Urals. In the study area, 180 Chrysomelidae species have been registered, which is 51% of the Chrysomelidae family in the Orenburg Region. In addition, 86 recorded species were found for the first time in the Shaitan-Tau State Nature Reserve, including eight species recorded for the first time in the Orenburg Region. A new species of the genus Altica was discovered in the study area. In terms of the level of species richness, the Chrysomelidae family of the Shaitan-Tau Nature Reserve is comparable with or noticeably richer than other local faunas of the Protected Areas of the Southern Urals. At the same time, this Chrysomelidae fauna has fewer species than of other state nature reserves and national parks in the forest-steppe zone of the Volga Upland. Features of the zoogeographical structure of the Chrysomelidae family in the Shaitan-Tau State Nature Reserve include quite a high number of West-Palaearctic species (23 species; 12.8%), many of which are located there on the eastern limit of their natural ranges, and a low proportion of Central Palaearctic species (3.9%). At the same time, two Siberian species were discovered (Labidostomis sibirica and Gonioctena flavicornis), which are located on relict island sites of their ranges in the Urals. These findings noticably distinguish the studied fauna from the Chrysomelidae of the steppe Protected Areas in the south of the Orenburg Region, where a considerable proportion are representatives of the Kazakh-Turanian genesis. The studied Chrysomelidae fauna is characterised by a set of rich groups of steppe, meadow-steppe, nemoral and, to a lesser extent, boreal forms (a large part of which are located on the lomits of their ranges in the study area), as well as a pronounced spatial mosaic of biotopic complexes (e.g. forest, steppe, floodplains). In general, the data presented in this study objectively characterise the Chrysomelidae fauna of the Shaitan-Tau State Nature Reserve as a reference for the Ural oak forest-steppe ecosystem, which emphasises its important role for the conservation of natural complexes, as well as the knowledge of the current state and historical stages of the formation of biota of the western macroslope of the South Urals.

Genetic and Phenotypic Consequences of Local Transitions between Sexual and Parthenogenetic Reproduction in the Wild.

AbstractTransitions from sexual to asexual reproduction have occurred in numerous lineages, but it remains unclear why asexual populations rarely persist. In facultatively parthenogenetic animals, all-female populations can arise when males are absent or become extinct, and such populations could help to understand the genetic and phenotypic changes that occur in the initial stages of transitions to asexuality. We investigated a naturally occurring spatial mosaic of mixed-sex and all-female populations of the facultatively parthenogenetic Australian phasmid Megacrania batesii. Analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphisms indicated multiple independent transitions between reproductive modes. All-female populations had much lower heterozygosity and allelic diversity than mixed-sex populations, but we found few consistent differences in fitness-related traits between population types. All-female populations exhibited more frequent and severe deformities in their (flight-incapable) wings but did not show higher rates of appendage loss. All-female populations also harbored more ectoparasites in swamp (but not beach) habitats. Reproductive mode explained little variation in female body size, fecundity, or egg hatch rate. Our results suggest that transitions to parthenogenetic reproduction can lead to dramatic genetic changes with little immediate effect on performance. All-female M. batesii populations appear to consist of high-fitness genotypes that might be able to thrive for many generations in relatively constant and benign environments but could be vulnerable to environmental challenges, such as increased parasite abundance.

Microplaston artificial polymers in the Miass River and Lake Turgoyak (Southern Urals, Russia) in the early stages of colonisation

Aim. To identify the composition and features of the spatial structure of microfouling (microplaston) during the early stages of colonisation of the surfaces of artificial polymer films (LDPE) in the natural habitats of the Miass River and Lake Turgoyak (Southern Urals). The early stages of polymer microfouling which create the basis for further complexity of its spatial mosaic are considered, taking into account the surface microlandscape and the possibilities it creates for the location of community components.Materials and Methods. Fragments of polymer films (LDPE) manufactured for household use were collected in the waters of the Miass River and Lake Turgoyak in June 2023. Samples were selected that were exposed in natural reservoirs for at least several months. Analysis of the composition, structure and spatial organization of microplastonic communities was carried out using light and SEM microscopy.Results. The microplaston in the early stages of growth varied significantly among the habitats studied. On LDPE films from the Miass River they were dominated by sessile armored amoebae (Granofilosea: Microgromiidae), attached diatoms (Bacillariophyta: Achnanthaceae, Cocconeidaceae) developed as a mass and encrusting green microalgae (Chlorophyta, Charophyta) were also found. In Lake Turgoyak cortical green microalgae clearly dominated, together with other diatoms (Bacillariophyta: Rhopalodiaceae, Cocconeidaceae). Trichome and coccoid forms of cyanoprokaryotes (Cyanobacteria: Pseudanabaenaceae, Rivulariaceae, Chamaesiphonaceae, Microcystaceae) were also abundant. The colonisation of films by individual species varied among habitats and also depended on the surface microrelief.Conclusion. Analysis of the microplaston of LDPE films in hydrologically different habitats demonstrated the features of early colonisation of these substrates, the biotope‐specificity of the species and spatial structure of communities, as well as the organisation of colonial settlements of a number of species.

High trait diversity among soil arthropods allows their survival in a heterogeneous eco-agricultural mosaic

Studies examining changes in functional diversity and trait composition for soil arthropods are limited yet crucial for understanding the effects of land-use change. To determine whether plantation forestry drives functional homogenization of soil biota, we compared the taxonomic and functional diversity of ants and springtails between natural (indigenous forests and grasslands) and transformed (Eucalyptus plantations) biotopes. The prevalence of morphological and ecological traits in natural vs. transformed biotopes was also assessed. The study was conducted in two environmentally contrasting regions: high elevation areas with clay soils and coastal areas with sandy soils, in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Surprisingly, the Eucalyptus compartments generally had similar levels of taxonomic and functional diversity as indigenous forests and/or grasslands. However, there were shifts in traits between the three biotopes, with each biotope supporting arthropods with traits suited to the environmental conditions in the biotope. Some traits were representative of the natural biotopes, and others of the plantation compartments. As a functionally diverse component of soil biodiversity is present in the plantations, it is indicative that these plantations have seemingly high levels of ecosystem stability and functioning. Arthropod traits compatible with the different environments appear to allow them to persist in high diversity across the landscape mosaic. These results suggest that enhancing landscape heterogeneity in a production landscape increases taxonomic and functional diversity of soil arthropods by creating a large-scale, spatial mosaic of complementary conditions for species with different habitat requirements.

Asynchrony in coral community structure contributes to reef-scale community stability

Many aspects of global ecosystem degradation are well known, but the ecological implications of variation in these effects over scales of kilometers and years have not been widely considered. On tropical coral reefs, kilometer-scale variation in environmental conditions promotes a spatial mosaic of coral communities in which spatial insurance effects could enhance community stability. To evaluate whether these effects are important on coral reefs, we explored variation over 2006–2019 in coral community structure and environmental conditions in Moorea, French Polynesia. We studied coral community structure at a single site with fringing, back reef, and fore reef habitats, and used this system to explore associations among community asynchrony, asynchrony of environmental conditions, and community stability. Coral community structure varied asynchronously among habitats, and variation among habitats in the daily range in seawater temperature suggested it could be a factor contributing to the variation in coral community structure. Wave forced seawater flow connected the habitats and facilitated larval exchange among them, but this effect differed in strength among years, and accentuated periodic connectivity among habitats at 1–7 year intervals. At this site, connected habitats harboring taxonomically similar coral assemblages and exhibiting asynchronous population dynamics can provide insurance against extirpation, and may promote community stability. If these effects apply at larger spatial scale, then among-habitat community asynchrony is likely to play an important role in determining reef-wide coral community resilience.

Structural and functional distinctions of co-resident microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages after retinal degeneration

BackgroundBoth resident microglia and invading peripheral immune cells can respond to injury and degeneration in the central nervous system. However, after dead and dying neurons have been cleared and homeostasis is re-established, it is unknown whether resident immune cells fully resume normal functions and to what degree the peripheral immune cells take up residence.MethodsUsing flow cytometry, in vivo retinal imaging, immunohistochemistry, and single-cell mRNA sequencing, we assess resident microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages in the retina during and after the loss of photoreceptors in the Arr1−/− mouse model of inducible degeneration.ResultsWe find that photoreceptor loss results in a small, sustained increase in mononuclear phagocytes and, after degeneration wanes, these cells re-establish a spatial mosaic reminiscent of healthy retinas. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the population remained unusually heterogeneous, with several subpopulations expressing gene patterns consistent with mildly activated phenotypes. Roughly a third of “new resident” cells expressed markers traditionally associated with both microglial and monocytic lineages, making their etiology ambiguous. Using an inducible Cre-based fluorescent lineage tracing paradigm to confirm the origins of new resident immune cells, we found approximately equal numbers of microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages after degeneration had subsided. In vivo retinal imaging and immunohistochemical analysis showed that both subpopulations remained functionally responsive to sites of local damage, though on average the monocyte-derived cells had less morphological complexity, expressed higher levels of MHCII, and had less migratory activity than the native resident population.ConclusionsMonocytic cells that infiltrate the retina during degeneration differentiate into monocyte-derived macrophages that can remain in the retina long-term. These monocyte-derived macrophages adopt ramified morphologies and microglia-like gene expression. However, they remain distinguishable in morphology and gene expression from resident microglia and appear to differ functionally, showing less responsiveness to subsequent retinal injuries. These findings support the idea that persistent changes in the local immune population that occur in response to cell loss in aging and progressive retinal diseases may include the establishment of subpopulations of bone marrow-derived cells whose ability to respond to subsequent insults wanes over time.

The impact of habitat loss on molecular signatures of coevolution between an iconic butterfly (Alcon blue) and its host plant (Marsh gentian).

Habitat loss is threatening natural communities worldwide. Small and isolated populations suffer from inbreeding and genetic drift, which jeopardize their long-term survival and adaptive capacities. However, the consequences of habitat loss for reciprocal coevolutionary interactions remain poorly studied. In this study, we investigated the effects of decreasing habitat patch size and connectivity associated with habitat loss on molecular signatures of coevolution in the Alcon blue butterfly (Phengaris alcon) and its most limited host, the marsh gentian (Gentiana pneumonanthe). Because reciprocal coevolution is characterized by negative frequency-dependent selection as a particular type of balancing selection, we investigated how signatures of balancing selection vary along a gradient of patch size and connectivity, using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We found that signatures of coevolution were unaffected by patch characteristics in the host plants. On the other hand, more pronounced signatures of coevolution were observed in both spatially isolated and in large Alcon populations, together with pronounced spatial variation in SNPs that are putatively involved in coevolution. These findings suggest that habitat loss can facilitate coevolution in large butterfly populations through limiting swamping of locally beneficial alleles by maladaptive ones. We also found that allelic richness (Ar) of the coevolutionary SNPs is decoupled from neutral Ar in the butterfly, indicating that habitat loss has different effects on coevolutionary as compared with neutral processes. We conclude that this specialized coevolutionary system requires particular conservation interventions aiming at generating a spatial mosaic of both connected and of isolated habitat to maintain coevolutionary dynamics.

Eddy-enhanced primary production sustains heterotrophic microbial activities in the Eastern Tropical North Atlantic

Abstract. Mesoscale eddies modulate the ocean's physical, chemical, and biological properties. In cyclonic eddies (CEs), nutrient upwelling can stimulate primary production by phytoplankton. Yet, how this locally enhanced autotrophic production affects heterotrophy and consequently the metabolic balance between the synthesis and the consumption of dissolved organic matter (DOM) remains largely unknown. To fill this gap, we investigated the horizontal and vertical variability in auto- and heterotrophic microbial activity (biomass production and respiration) within a CE that formed off Mauritania and along the ∼ 900 km zonal corridor between Mauritania and the Cape Verde islands in the Eastern Tropical North Atlantic (ETNA). Our results show how the physical disturbances caused by the CE affected the biomass distribution of phyto- and bacterioplankton and their metabolic activities. The injection of nutrients into the sunlit surface resulted in enhanced autotrophic pico- and nanoplankton abundance and generally increased autotrophic activity as indicated by chlorophyll a (Chl a) concentration, primary production (PP), and extracellular release rates. However, the detailed eddy survey also revealed an uneven distribution of these variables with, for example, the highest Chl a concentrations and PP rates occurring near and just beyond the CE's periphery. The heterotrophic bacterial activity was similarly variable. Optode-based community respiration (CR), bacterial respiration (BR) estimates, and bacterial biomass production (BP) largely followed the trends of PP and Chl a. Thus, a submesoscale spatial mosaic of heterotrophic bacterial abundance and activities occurred within the CE that was closely related to variability in autotrophic production. Consistent with this, we found a significant positive correlation between concentrations of semi-labile dissolved organic carbon (SL-DOC; here the sum of dissolved hydrolysable amino acids and dissolved combined carbohydrates) and BR estimates. Extracellular release of carbon as indicated by primary production of dissolved organic carbon (PPDOC) was variable with depth and laterally and not always sufficient to compensate the bacterial carbon demand (BCD: BR + BP), with PPDOC accounting for between 28 % and 110 % of the BCD. Bacterial growth efficiency (BGE: BP / BCD) ranged between 1.7 % and 18.2 %. We estimated the metabolic state to establish whether the CE was a source or a sink of organic carbon. We showed that the CE carried a strong autotrophic signal in the core (PP / CR > 1). Our results suggest that submesoscale (0–10 km) processes lead to highly variable metabolic activities in both photoautotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms. Overall, we revealed that the CEs not only trap and transport coastal nutrients and organic carbon to the open ocean but also stimulate phytoplankton growth, generating freshly produced organic matter during westward propagation. This drives heterotrophic processes and may contribute to the previously observed net heterotrophy in open Atlantic surface waters.

Hidden biodiversity: Spatial mosaics of eelgrass genotypic diversity at the centimeter to meadow scale.

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A combined GIS and remote sensing approach for monitoring climate change-related land degradation to support landscape preservation and planning tools: the Basilicata case study

Monitoring landscapes in times of climate change patterns is a crucial issue, moreover, in the analyzed Mediterranean area, one of the major global candidates to develop land degradation stresses and consequential desertification phenomena. The research presented here is developed in the Mediterranean Basin, specifically in the Basilicata Region (southern Italy). The region is characterized by a very long history of intensive anthropization endowed by the high diversity of relatively geologically young soil types that consequentially created a vastity of spatial mosaics, which contributed to the composition of its archeolandscapes and endorsed some specific characteristics of the Mediterranean region, that evolved to respond to the human impact, including grazing, cultivation, and fires. Those key elements lead to the crucial issues of the region investigated here as soil erosion, salinization, loss of organic carbon, loss of biodiversity, and landslides, which together with deforestations, depopulation, and wildfires, define the exact framework of degradation and marginality. The evaluation of the sensitivity to degradation was performed (i) firstly at the regional scale, through a MEDALUS (Kosmas et al. 1999) approach, by implementing 6 main indicators (Soil Quality Index, Climate Quality Index, Vegetation Quality Index, Management Quality Index, Landslide Risk Index, Water Availability Index), and (ii) secondly at the mid-regional scale, through remote sensing by evaluation of the NDVI differencing thresholds in time intervals, covering a 20 years’ time span going from 2000 to 2020. The study helped to define the in-progress land degradation trends and scenarios of the region, which must be the evidence-based foundation of integrated landscape planning strategies in marginal territories, implemented through a Decision Support System (DSS) based both on ecological, climate-adaptive, and environmental indicators, and on social, cultural, and economic development co-creation strategies.

Regional ecosystem health assessment using the GA-BPANN model: a case study of Yunnan Province, China

ABSTRACT Background: Regional ecosystem health assessments are the basis for the sustainable development of society. However, an ecosystem is a complex integration of ecosystem mosaics and subsystems that influence each other, making it difficult to evaluate them using traditional assessment methods of linear and explicit functions. We introduce a back-propagation neural network model optimized by a genetic algorithm to evaluate ecosystem health in 16 districts in Yunnan Province.Result: (1) The model required fewer inputs to evaluate complex and nonlinear systems, avoided the need for subjective weights, and performed well in this practical application to regional ecosystem health assessment. (2) The ecosystem health in Yunnan Province was increasing, and there was a significant positive spatial autocorrelation during 2000–2020, showing that districts with high Ecosystem Health cluster together and the ecological protection policy of the region has produced a diffusion effect, leading to continuous improvement of the ecological health of the surrounding areas. High-low outlier areas of ecosystem health should be paid more attention, because of the increasing instability of local health levels. Conclusion: This study provides a methodological exploration for assessing spatial mosaics of different ecosystems at a regional scale.

EEG Power Spectrum: Mistakes and practical application (lecture two). Dispersive EEG analysis according to Rosman’s method

V. Rosman (Tver, Russia) proposed a method for three-dimensional mapping of the spatial distribution of alpha-band frequencies over thesurface of the head based on the dispersive analysis. The results of the application of this method in patients with mental illnesses have been carried out on the basis of huge case statistics and are presented in many publications. The electroencephalographic assessment of threedimensional dispersion maps in disorders of mental functions is based on the interpretation of the state of the systemic-functional organization of the bioelectrical activity of the brain as a whole. The most diverse spatial mosaic of alpha distribution is encountered visually. We have identified three main types of spatial distribution of the alpha rhythm according to dispersion maps: scattered, organized, and excessively consolidated. Evaluation of the state of the systemic-functional organization of cortical rhythm using three-dimensional analysis of dispersion maps greatly facilitates the solution of the difficult interpretational problem of decoding the EEG in mental disorders, and finally allows this method to be pulled out of the routine level.

Spatial covariation in nutrient enrichment and fishing of herbivores in an oceanic coral reef ecosystem.

Both natural and anthropogenic stressors are increasing on coral reefs, resulting in large‐scale loss of coral and potential shifts from coral‐ to macroalgae‐dominated community states. Two factors implicated in shifts to macroalgae are nutrient enrichment and fishing of reef herbivores. Although either of these factors alone could facilitate establishment of macroalgae, reefs may be particularly vulnerable to coral‐to‐algae phase shifts in which strong bottom‐up forcing from nutrient enrichment is accompanied by a weakening of herbivore control of macroalgae via intense fishing. We explored spatial heterogeneity and covariance in these drivers on reefs in the lagoons of Moorea, French Polynesia, where the local fishery heavily targets herbivorous fishes and there are spatially variable inputs of nutrients from agricultural fertilizers and wastewater systems. Spatial patterns of fishing and nutrient enrichment were not correlated at the two landscape scales we examined: among the 11 interconnected lagoons around the island or among major habitats (fringing reef, mid‐lagoon, back reef) within a lagoon. This decoupling at the landscape scale resulted from patterns of covariation between enrichment and fishing that differed qualitatively between cross‐shore and long‐shore directions. At the cross‐shore scale, nutrient enrichment declined but fishing increased from shore to the crest of the barrier reef. By contrast, nutrient enrichment and fishing were positively correlated in the long‐shore direction, with both increasing with proximity to a pass in the barrier reef. Contrary to widespread assumptions in the scientific literature that human coastal population density correlates with impact on marine ecosystems and that fishing effort declines linearly with distance from the shore, these local stressors produced a complex spatial mosaic of reef vulnerabilities. Our findings support spatially explicit management involving the control of anthropogenic nutrients and strategic reductions in fishing pressure on herbivores by highlighting specific areas to target for management actions.

Relics of beavers past: time and population density drive scale‐dependent patterns of ecosystem engineering

Like many ecological processes, natural disturbances exhibit scale‐dependent dynamics that are largely a function of the magnitude, frequency and scale at which they are assessed. Ecosystem engineers create patch‐scale disturbances that affect ecological processes, yet we know little about how these effects scale across space or vary through time. Here, we investigate how patch disturbances by beavers Castor canadensis, ecosystem engineers renowned for their pond‐creation behavior, affect ecological processes across space and time. We evaluated how beaver population recovery influenced surface water dynamics in relation to population density over 70 years across multiple spatial scales (pond, watershed and regional) in northern Minnesota. Surface water area was positively related to population density at the watershed scale; however, despite variation in beaver densities (and therefore surface water area) at the watershed scale, regional‐scale surface water area was stable through time. This stability appears to have been driven by asynchronous beaver density fluctuations among watersheds, combined with the increasing importance of abandoned ponds. Beavers initially created and occupied larger ponds with greater surface water area, but through time shifted towards occupying smaller ponds. As ponds accumulated on the landscape proportionally more surface water was stored within abandoned ponds, which offset the smaller size of occupied ponds. Beaver engineering – driven by density‐dependent mechanisms and the legacy effects from abandoned ponds – not only follows general patterns of patch disturbance dynamics by creating a spatial mosaic of patches, but the organism‐created mosaic also appears to generate ecological stability at greater spatial scales. We suggest restoring beavers to landscapes is a viable method for increasing surface water storage and will ultimately help advance numerous conservation and rewilding objectives. Our study demonstrates that ecosystem engineering effects can be scale‐dependent, indicating researchers should evaluate the ecological impact of engineers across diverse spatiotemporal scales to fully understand their functional roles in ecosystems.

Smart allocation of restoration funds over space and time.

A challenge for natural area managers is to ensure that public expenditure on land restoration is cost effective, efficient and transparent but this is difficult to achieve in practice, especially when there are many possible projects across multiple years. Here we develop a "roadmap" for investment in land restoration. It explicitly considers space, time and their interaction, in relation to ecological outcomes and restoration costs (and their variation in time and space). Using integer linear programming optimization in a benefit-cost accounting framework, the roadmap incorporates: transitions between different stages of ecological recovery in a spatial mosaic of multiple ecosystem types; cost schedules associated with managing those transitions over time; time lags between beginning management and achieving outcomes; variations to constraints and goals associated with various factors including site accessibility, specific conservation priorities (such as threatened species or ecosystems); and background environmental trends. This approach enables land managers to: (1) forecast landscape-scale outcomes of management strategies over long timeframes; (2) address the question of how long it will take and how much it will cost to achieve specific outcomes; and (3) explore potential trade-offs in outcomes among alternative management strategies. We illustrate its application using a case study of forest restoration in Australia by a local government authority across a public conservation estate comprising 765 land units of varying size, totaling ˜13,000 ha, across five different floristic vegetation types, with an annual budget of ˜AU$5M, projected over a 50-yr timeframe. These simulations revealed a trade-off between management strategies that seek to increase either the total cover of native forest or the amount of high quality forest: quality-based strategies were favored in scenarios in which shorter term (20-30 yr) timeframes were chosen at the outset, but cover-based strategies were favored if longer time horizons were initially targeted. Projected outcomes were also strongly influenced by assumed background rates of vegetation decline or recovery. Many of the issues in this restoration roadmap are generalizable (even though specific outcomes and trade-offs are likely to vary among case studies), and the approach is both scalable and transferable to other regions and ecosystems.