Spatial Learners Research Articles

Differential stress response to psychological and physical stressors in children using spatial versus response-dependent navigation strategies

Previous work from our lab has shown that basal cortisol levels are different between healthy young adults who spontaneously use caudate nucleus-dependent response strategies compared to young adults who use hippocampus-dependent spatial navigation strategies. Young adults who use caudate nucleus dependent strategies display lower basal cortisol levels compared to those who use hippocampus-dependent strategies. In the current study, we assessed navigation strategies in children using a virtual navigation task and measured cortisol at baseline as well as cortisol reactivity to both a psychological and to a physical stressor. Replicating what is observed in adults, we found that children who used caudate nucleus-dependent navigation strategies displayed lower cortisol levels at baseline compared to those who used hippocampus-dependent strategies. The psychological stressor, knowledge that a blood draw would be performed by a nurse, caused a significant increase in cortisol uniquely in response learners. The physical stressor, the actual blood draw, produced a significant increase in cortisol amongst spatial learners that was then comparable to levels observed in response learners. Lower baseline cortisol and higher cortisol psychological stress response observed amongst children who used response strategies may therefore reflect early biological changes during development which may have an impact later in life when considering risk for neuropsychiatric disorders.

Focus on the notice: evidence of spatial skills\u2019 effect on middle school learning from a computer simulation

This article represents the findings from the qualitative portion of a mixed methods study that investigated the impact of middle school students’ spatial skills on their plate tectonics learning while using a computer visualization. Higher spatial skills have been linked to higher STEM achievement, while use of computer visualizations has mixed results for helping various students with different spatial levels. This study endeavors to better understand the difference between what high and low spatial-skilled middle school students notice and interpret while using a plate tectonic computer visualization. Also, we examine the differences in the quantity and quality of students’ spatial language. The collected data include student spatial scores, student interviews, screencasts, and online artifacts. The artifacts were students’ answers to questions inserted in an online curriculum (GEODE) with the embedded computer visualization (Seismic Explorer). Students were asked what they “noticed” during interviews and in the curriculum. Typed student answers and interviews were analyzed for types and quantity of spatial words. Analysis of typed answers and interviews indicated that there are differences in the number and types of spatial words used by high or low spatial students. Additionally, high spatial learners talk about depth, notice patterns in data and are more likely to make a hypothesis to explain what they see on the screen. Findings suggest that students go through an iterative cycle of noticing and interpreting when using a scientific model. Overall, results show a significant positive relationship between spatial skills and what students notice while learning plate tectonics. An explanation for the increased gain in plate tectonics comprehension is that students with higher spatial skills notice more, so they are able to interpret more details of the model. This finding implies that students with low spatial skills do not benefit as much from use of a computer visualization and will need more scaffolding in order to interpret details in the computer visualization.

Benefits of immersive collaborative learning in CAVE-based virtual reality

How to make the learning of complex subjects engaging, motivating, and effective? The use of immersive virtual reality offers exciting, yet largely unexplored solutions to this problem. Taking neuroanatomy as an example of a visually and spatially complex subject, the present study investigated whether academic learning using a state-of-the-art Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE) yielded higher learning gains compared to conventional textbooks. The present study leveraged a combination of CAVE benefits including collaborative learning, rich spatial information, embodied interaction and gamification. Results indicated significantly higher learning gains after collaborative learning in the CAVE with large effect sizes compared to a textbook condition. Furthermore, low spatial ability learners benefitted most from the strong spatial cues provided by immersive virtual reality, effectively raising their performance to that of high spatial ability learners. The present study serves as a concrete example of the effective design and implementation of virtual reality in CAVE settings, demonstrating learning gains and thus opening opportunities to more pervasive use of immersive technologies for education. In addition, the study illustrates how immersive learning may provide novel scaffolds to increase performance in those who need it most.

Negative correlation between grey matter in the hippocampus and caudate nucleus in healthy aging.

Neurobiological changes that occur with aging include a reduction in function and volume of the hippocampus. These changes were associated with corresponding memory deficits in navigation tasks. However, navigation can involve different strategies that are dependent on the hippocampus and caudate nucleus. The proportion of people using hippocampus-dependent spatial strategies decreases across the lifespan. As such, the decrease in spatial strategies, and corresponding increase in caudate nucleus-dependent response strategies with age, may play a role in the observed neurobiological changes in the hippocampus. Furthermore, we previously showed a negative correlation between grey matter in the hippocampus and caudate nucleus/striatum in mice, young adults, and in individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. As such, we hypothesized that this negative relationship between the two structures would be present during normal aging. The aim of the current study was to investigate this gap in the literature by studying the relationship between grey matter in the hippocampus and caudate nucleus of the striatum, in relation to each other and to navigation strategies, during healthy aging. Healthy older adults (N = 39) were tested on the Concurrent Spatial Discrimination Learning Task (CSDLT), a virtual radial task that dissociates between spatial and response strategies. A regression of strategies against structural MRIs showed for the first time in older adults that the response strategy was associated with higher amounts of grey matter in the caudate nucleus. As expected, the spatial strategy correlated with grey matter in the hippocampus, which was negatively correlated with grey matter in the caudate nucleus. Interestingly, a sex difference emerged showing that among older adult response learners, women have the least amount of grey matter in the hippocampus, which is a known risk for Alzheimer's disease. This difference was absent among spatial learners. These results are discussed in the context of the putative protective role of spatial memory against grey matter loss in the hippocampus, especially in women.

Neurodevelopmental outcomes in patients with mucopolysaccharidosis type I (MPS I)

Previous work from our lab has shown that basal cortisol levels are different between healthy young adults who spontaneously use caudate nucleus-dependent response strategies compared to young adults who use hippocampus-dependent spatial navigation strategies. Young adults who use caudate nucleus dependent strategies display lower basal cortisol levels compared to those who use hippocampus-dependent strategies. In the current study, we assessed navigation strategies in children using a virtual navigation task and measured cortisol at baseline as well as cortisol reactivity to both a psychological and to a physical stressor. Replicating what is observed in adults, we found that children who used caudate nucleus-dependent navigation strategies displayed lower cortisol levels at baseline compared to those who used hippocampus-dependent strategies. The psychological stressor, knowledge that a blood draw would be performed by a nurse, caused a significant increase in cortisol uniquely in response learners. The physical stressor, the actual blood draw, produced a significant increase in cortisol amongst spatial learners that was then comparable to levels observed in response learners. Lower baseline cortisol and higher cortisol psychological stress response observed amongst children who used response strategies may therefore reflect early biological changes during development which may have an impact later in life when considering risk for neuropsychiatric disorders.

Autistic traits in neurotypical individuals are associated with increased landmark use during navigation.

People adopt two distinct learning strategies during navigation. "Spatial learners" navigate by building a cognitive map using environmental landmarks, and display more grey matter in the hippocampus. Conversely, "response learners" memorize a series of rigid turns to navigate and display more grey matter in the caudate nucleus of the striatum. Evidence has linked these two structures with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and autistic traits in non-clinical populations. Both people with ASD and neurotypical people with higher levels of autistic traits have been shown to display more grey matter in the hippocampus and less functional activity in the caudate nucleus. We therefore tested 56 healthy participants who completed the Autism Quotient (AQ) Scale and the 4-on-8 Virtual Maze (4/8 VM), which determines the reliance on landmarks during navigation. We found that people who relied on landmarks during navigation also displayed significantly higher scores on the AQ Scale. Because spatial strategies are associated with increased attention to environmental landmark use and are supported by the hippocampus, our results provide a potential behavioral mechanism linking higher autistic traits (e.g., increased attention to detail and increased sensory processes) to increased hippocampal grey matter.

Spatial learners display enhanced oculomotor performance

ABSTRACTAttention is important during navigation processes that rely on a cognitive map, as spatial relationships between environmental landmarks need to be selected, encoded, and learned. Spatial learners navigate using this process of cognitive map formation, which relies on the hippocampus. Conversely, response learners memorise a series of actions to navigate, which relies on the caudate nucleus. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between spatial learning and oculomotor performance. We tested 23 response learners and 23 spatial learners, as determined by the 4-on-8 virtual maze, on an antisaccade task with a gap and emotional visual stimulus manipulation. Spatial learners displayed decreased saccadic reaction time latencies compared to response learners. Performance cost from the gap manipulation was significantly higher in response learners. These results could represent an attentional practice effect through the use of spatial strategies during navigation or a more global increase in cognitive function amongst spatial learners.

First comparative approach to touchscreen-based visual object-location paired-associates learning in humans (Homo sapiens) and a nonhuman primate (Microcebus murinus).

A recent study suggests that a specific, touchscreen-based task on visual object-location paired-associates learning (PAL), the so-called Different PAL (dPAL) task, allows effective translation from animal models to humans. Here, we adapted the task to a nonhuman primate (NHP), the gray mouse lemur, and provide first evidence for the successful comparative application of the task to humans and NHPs. Young human adults reach the learning criterion after considerably less sessions (one order of magnitude) than young, adult NHPs, which is likely due to faster and voluntary rejection of ineffective learning strategies in humans and almost immediate rule generalization. At criterion, however, all human subjects solved the task by either applying a visuospatial rule or, more rarely, by memorizing all possible stimulus combinations and responding correctly based on global visual information. An error-profile analysis in humans and NHPs suggests that successful learning in NHPs is comparably based either on the formation of visuospatial associative links or on more reflexive, visually guided stimulus-response learning. The classification in the NHPs is further supported by an analysis of the individual response latencies, which are considerably higher in NHPs classified as spatial learners. Our results, therefore, support the high translational potential of the standardized, touchscreen-based dPAL task by providing first empirical and comparable evidence for two different cognitive processes underlying dPAL performance in primates. (PsycINFO Database Record

Testing domain general learning in an Australian lizard.

A key question in cognition is whether animals that are proficient in a specific cognitive domain (domain specific hypothesis), such as spatial learning, are also proficient in other domains (domain general hypothesis) or whether there is a trade-off. Studies testing among these hypotheses are biased towards mammals and birds. To understand constraints on the evolution of cognition more generally, we need broader taxonomic and phylogenetic coverage. We used Australian eastern water skinks (Eulamprus quoyii) with known spatial learning ability in three additional tasks: an instrumental and two discrimination tasks. Under domain specific learning we predicted that lizards that were good at spatial learning would perform less well in the discrimination tasks. Conversely, we predicted that lizards that did not meet our criterion for spatial learning would likewise perform better in discrimination tasks. Lizards with domain general learning should perform approximately equally well (or poorly) in these tasks. Lizards classified as spatial learners performed no differently to non-spatial learners in both the instrumental and discrimination learning tasks. Nevertheless, lizards were proficient in all tasks. Our results reveal two patterns: domain general learning in spatial learners and domain specific learning in non-spatial learners. We suggest that delineating learning into domain general and domain specific may be overly simplistic and we need to instead focus on individual variation in learning ability, which ultimately, is likely to play a key role in fitness. These results, in combination with previously published work on this species, suggests that this species has behavioral flexibility because they are competent across multiple cognitive domains and are capable of reversal learning.

Geo-Literacy between School Environment and Students Spatial Intelligence

School environment has an important role in the success of learning geography for the school environment has an influence on the increase in spatial learners. The effect of the school environment on spatial intelligence moderated by geo-literacy. Geo-literacy strong connection with spatial intelligence, because the element of geographical has a role in increasing individual spatial intelligence. This study aims at (1) analyze the influence of the school environment on spatial intelligence (2) to analyze geo-literacy as a moderating variable in the school environment influences the spatial intelligence. The method of this study is survey method with 264 respondents. Data were analyzed using regression analysis with a moderating variable. Results of this study are (1) the school environment have a significant effect on students’ spatial intelligence. It is based on regression weight = 0,364 and p value = 0,004; (2) the geo-literacy does not significantly influence as a moderating variable. This argue based from X1X2 significance value greater than 0,05 is 0,633. However, as independent variable geo-literacy has regression weight = 0,350 and p value = 0,0017. This study concluded that the school environment significantly influences spatial intelligence and geo-literacy is not as significant as a moderating variable but independent variables that affect spatial intelligence.

Electrophysiological evidence for enhanced attentional deployment in spatial learners.

Visual spatial attention is important during navigation processes that rely on a cognitive map, because spatial relationships between environmental landmarks need to be selected, encoded, and learned. People who navigate using this strategy are spatial learners, and this process relies on the hippocampus. Conversely, response learners memorize a series of actions to navigate, which relies on the caudate nucleus. Response learning, which is more efficient, is thought to involve less demanding cognitive operations, and is related to reduced grey matter in the hippocampus. To test if navigational strategy can impact visual attention performance, we investigated if spatial and response learners showed differences in attentional engagement used during a visual spatial task. We tested 40 response learners and 39 spatial learners, as determined by the 4-on-8 Virtual Maze (4/8VM), on a target detection task designed to elicit an N2pc component (an index visual spatial attention). Spatial learners produced a larger N2pc amplitude during target detection compared to response learners. This relationship might represent an increase in goal-directed attention towards target stimuli or a more global increase in cognitive function that has been previously observed in spatial learners.

VISUAL THINKING: ENHANCING ART CRITICISM SKILLS AMONG SPATIAL LEARNERS

Art criticism is one of the four foundational disciplines of Discipline-based Art Education (DBAE). It refers to an organized system for studying the work of art by looking and talking about art that involves making description, analysis, interpretation and judgments about artworks. However, most of the times, students do not know what to say, or how to go about saying it, or they might make the wrong judgments. Art students are mostly visual-spatial learners. Very often these students also end up writing in a dull way, with little sense of academic values. Therefore, visual imageries play an important role for these spatial learners who are skilful in representing, transforming, generating, and recalling symbolic, non-linguistic information. In the 21st century, teaching and learning with technology have diversified to complement the age of digital era where technology is made available to cater for all learning styles. A Visual Thinking Courseware (VTC) was designed and developed to help solve the problem of teaching Art Education by introducing systematic strategies particularly on visuals to enhance students’ Art Criticism skills. Built on Gestalt Theory, the objective of this research was to determine the best visual selections for the teaching and learning of Art Criticism between Random Visual Selection (RVS) and Sequenced Visual Selection (SVS). Research was carried out to determine the difference in students’ performance in Art Criticism between High Spatial Learners (HSL) and Low Spatial Learners (LSL) using these RVS and SVS modes. The methodology used in this research was quantitative and qualitative in nature. A quasi-experimental design was applied to collect the necessary data. A pretest and posttest for the two treatment groups was implemented. Six research instruments were used in the research to obtain the data namely, Index for learning Styles Questionnaire (ILSQ), Spatial Ability Test, Pretest and Posttest, Courseware Evaluation Form, Art Criticism Rubrics and Critical Thinking Rubrics. Sixty-three post degree education diploma students participated in this study. This research indicates that there are significant difference in students’ performance in Art Criticism skills between High Spatial Learners (HSL) and Low Spatial Learners (LSL) using RVS and SVS. Data analysis showed that among HSL students, the RVS mode helped them to improve Art Criticism skills better than the SVS mode. For the LSL students, the SVS mode helped them to improve their Art Criticism skills better than the RVS mode. Therefore, it can be concluded that regardless of the visual selections, Visual Thinking Courseware used in this research enabled students to criticize better and help improve their Art Criticism skills. Keywords : Visual Thinking, Spatial Ability, Art Criticism, Art Education

Spatial learning in the genetically heterogeneous NIH-HS rat stock and RLA-I/RHA-I rats: Revisiting the relationship with unconditioned and conditioned anxiety

To characterize learning/memory profiles for the first time in the genetically heterogeneous NIH-HS rat stock, and to examine whether these are associated with anxiety, we evaluated NIH-HS rats for spatial learning/memory in the Morris water maze (MWM) and in the following anxiety/fear tests: the elevated zero-maze (ZM; unconditioned anxiety), a context-conditioned fear test and the acquisition of two-way active avoidance (conditioned anxiety). NIH-HS rats were compared with the Roman High- (RHA-I) and Low-Avoidance (RLA-I) rat strains, given the well-known differences between the Roman strains/lines in anxiety-related behavior and in spatial learning/memory. The results show that: (i) As expected, RLA-I rats were more anxious in the ZM test, displayed more frequent context-conditioned freezing episodes and fewer avoidances than RHA-I rats. (ii) Scores of NIH-HS rats in these tests/tasks mostly fell in between those of the Roman rat strains, and were usually closer to the values of the RLA-I strain. (iii) Pigmented NIH-HS (only a small part of NIH-HS rats were albino) rats were the best spatial learners and displayed better spatial memory than the other three (RHA-I, RLA-I and NIH-HS albino) groups. (iv) Albino NIH-HS and RLA-I rats also showed better learning/memory than the RHA-I strain. (v) Within the NIH-HS stock, the most anxious rats in the ZM test presented the best learning and/or memory efficiency (regardless of pigmentation). In summary, NIH-HS rats display a high performance in spatial learning/memory tasks and a passive coping strategy when facing conditioned conflict situations. In addition, unconditioned anxiety in NIH-HS rats predicts better spatial learning/memory.

Mixed media visualization effect on student perceptions and learning outcomes

This paper presents a methodology and pilot study rationale to examine the effect of mixed media visualization on learning outcomes in three dimensional (3D) modeling. The context for this study is a university first year undergraduate interactive media and design course. Meta analytic studies in the use of visualizations show positive improvements in learning outcomes among low and high spatial learners. But often these studies are focused on single media and virtual representations. Many multimedia learning studies do not take into consideration important factors that could influence the appropriate selection of media. This exploratory study aims to address this through the evaluation of physical and virtual media using 3D printed, virtual reality and two dimensional (2D) projections. A design science research methodology is proposed outlining several core guidelines evaluating the technology media method through learner blogs. The aim is improved learner engagement and outcomes through more meaningful learning activities.

Learning with desktop virtual reality: Low spatial ability learners are more positively affected

This study aims to verify the learning effectiveness of a desktop virtual reality (VR)-based learning environment, and to investigate the effects of desktop VR-based learning environment on learners with different spatial abilities. The learning outcome was measured cognitively through academic performance. A quasi pretest–posttest experimental design was employed for this study. A total of 431 high school students from four randomly selected schools participated in this study where they were randomly assigned to either experimental or control groups based on intact classes. Findings indicate a significant difference in the performance achievement between the two groups with students performed better using desktop virtual reality. A possible explanation is that the desktop virtual reality instructional intervention has helped to reduce extraneous cognitive load and engages learners in active processing of instructional material to increase germane cognitive load. A significant interaction effect was found between the learning mode and spatial ability with regard to the performance achievement. Further analysis shows a significant difference in the performance of low spatial ability learners in the experimental and control groups, but no statistically significant difference in the performance of high spatial learners in both groups. The results signify that low spatial ability learners' performance, compared with high spatial ability learners, appeared to be more positively affected by the desktop VR-based learning environment which is supported by the ability-as-compensator hypothesis, and can be explained by the cognitive load theory.

Visual–Spatial Ability: Important in STEM, Ignored in Gifted Education

Visual–spatial ability is a multifaceted component of intelligence that has predictive validity for future achievement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) occupations. Although identification and development of STEM talent is a national priority, visual–spatial ability is rarely measured and relatively neglected in gifted education. Quantitative and verbal reasoning abilities are favored over nonverbal abilities in talent searches and gifted programs, which causes some high-spatial, gifted students to be overlooked. Creative production in STEM requires visual–spatial ability, and this ability must be developed in gifted education. Theories of intelligence and testing have advanced to provide methods for identification of specific cognitive abilities, such as visual–spatial ability. However, for these students to be successful in gifted programs, gifted-education services must be modified to accommodate gifted spatial learners and develop spatial talents.

The Need to Address Psychological and Neurological Characteristics of Learners in the Mainstream Education System

Individual learners can be characterised based on their psychological and neurological characteristics, such as visual spatial and auditory sequential learners, extroverts and introverts or multiple intelligences. These differences go a long way in how successfully individuals learn and engage in their careers. However, our contemporary educations systems do not give due attention to these differences in satisfying individual requirements. For example, the issues related to high sensitivities of gifted and creative individuals being inadequately addressed in the mainstream education system are extensively highlighted in literature. Due to lack of support from the education and social systems, individuals fall behind in the process of self-actualisation. According to researchers, it appears that we focus mainly on instructing the learners’ left hemisphere of the brain, paying little attention on the right hemisphere. In this paper, the author highlights the need to make learners use both hemispheres of the brain through appropriate instructions and methodologies, despite some having preferences to using one half. Addressing psychological and neurological needs of the learners while accommodating them to use both brain hemispheres would put individuals into a self-actualising path that develops creativity and wisdom. In essence, as general educators, we develop awareness into the concept of neurodiversity.

Caudate nucleus‐dependent navigational strategies are associated with increased use of addictive drugs

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between navigational strategies and the use of abused substances in a sample of healthy young adults. Navigational strategies were assessed with the 4-on-8 virtual maze (4/8VM), a task previously shown to dissociate between hippocampal-dependent spatial navigational strategies and caudate nucleus-dependent stimulus-response navigational strategies. Spatial strategies involve learning the spatial relationships between the landmarks in an environment, while response learning strategies involve learning a rigid set of stimulus-response type associations, e.g., see the tree, turn left. We have shown that spatial learners have increased gray matter and fMRI activity in the hippocampus compared with response learners, while response learners have increased gray matter and fMRI activity in the caudate nucleus. We were interested in the prevalence of use of substances of abuse in spatial and response learners because of the evidence that people who score high on traits such as novelty seeking, sensation seeking, reward seeking, and impulsivity, are more cue-responsive and more likely to use substances of abuse. Since response learners show increased activity and gray matter in the caudate nucleus of the striatum, which is a brain area involved in addiction, we hypothesized that response learners would have a greater use of abused substances than spatial learners. Fifty-five young adults were tested on the 4/8VM and completed a time-line follow-back assessment of drug and alcohol use. We found that response learners had smoked a significantly greater number of cigarettes in their lifetime than spatial learners, were more likely to have used cannabis, and had double the lifetime alcohol consumption. We discuss the possible relationship between substance abuse and response strategies as well as the implications for the hippocampus, risks of neurological and psychiatric disorders, and healthy cognition. © 2013 The Authors. Hippocampus Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Virtual navigation strategies from childhood to senescence: evidence for changes across the life span.

This study sought to investigate navigational strategies across the life span, by testing 8-years old children to 80-years old healthy older adults on the 4 on 8 virtual maze (4/8VM). The 4/8VM was previously developed to assess spontaneous navigational strategies, i.e., hippocampal-dependent spatial strategies (navigation by memorizing relationships between landmarks) versus caudate nucleus-dependent response strategies (memorizing a series of left and right turns from a given starting position). With the 4/8VM, we previously demonstrated greater fMRI activity and gray matter in the hippocampus of spatial learners relative to response learners. A sample of 599 healthy participants was tested in the current study. Results showed that 84.4% of children, 46.3% of young adults, and 39.3% of older adults spontaneously used spatial strategies (p < 0.0001). Our results suggest that while children predominantly use spatial strategies, the proportion of participants using spatial strategies decreases across the life span, in favor of response strategies. Factors promoting response strategies include repetition, reward and stress. Since response strategies can result from successful repetition of a behavioral pattern, we propose that the increase in response strategies is a biological adaptive mechanism that allows for the automatization of behavior such as walking in order to free up hippocampal-dependent resources. However, the down-side of this shift from spatial to response strategies occurs if people stop building novel relationships, which occurs with repetition and routine, and thereby stop stimulating their hippocampus. Reduced fMRI activity and gray matter in the hippocampus were shown to correlate with cognitive deficits in normal aging. Therefore, these results have important implications regarding factors involved in healthy and successful aging.

Activation and survival of immature neurons in the dentate gyrus with spatial memory is dependent on time of exposure to spatial learning and age of cells at examination

Neurogenesis continues to occur throughout life in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and may be related to hippocampus-dependent learning. We have recently reported that there is an enhancement of neurogenesis in the hippocampus only when BrdU is administered 6days prior to starting spatial training but not when training started either 1day or 11days following BrdU administration. In that study, all rats were perfused on day 16 after BrdU injection in order to compare cells of the same age (i.e. 16day old cells) and thus the survival time after learning was different between groups. This study was designed to address whether the amount of time that passed following training could also contribute to the effects of spatial learning on hippocampal neurogenesis and whether there was differential new neuron activation in response to spatial learning that depended on the age of new cells at the time of spatial learning. Here we tested whether a survival period of 5days following spatial learning at either 1–5, 6–10 or 11–15days following BrdU administration would alter cell survival and/or activation of new neurons. Our results indicate that 5days after training in the Morris water task cell survival is unaltered by training on days 1–5, increased by training at days 6–10 and decreased when training occurs on days 11–15. Furthermore spatial learners trained on days 6–10 or 11–15 show greater activation of new neurons compared to cue-trained rats during a probe trial 5days after training. In addition, rats trained on the spatial task on days 11–15 had a greater number of activated new neurons compared to rats trained on the spatial task on days 6–10. These results suggest there is a gradual removal of older BrdU-labeled new neurons following spatial learning perhaps due to a competitive interaction with a population of younger BrdU-labeled new neurons.