Spanish Farmers Research Articles

The role of agricultural cooperatives in mitigating opportunism in the context of complying with sustainability requirements: empirical evidence from Spain

The convergence of emerging sustainability regulations and recommendations outlined in the European, national and regional agricultural policies, coupled with the growing demand from retailers for food produced through more sustainable agriculture practices, presents a substantial challenge for farmers. This challenge is further exacerbated by their limited access to essential information, knowledge, and resources necessary for compliance, which are often acquired through interactions with various stakeholders within the agri-food supply chain. Moreover, the inherent power asymmetry between small-scale farmers and their considerably larger counterparts, including input suppliers and agricultural product buyers, exposes farmers to opportunistic behaviours. In response to these challenges, agri-food cooperatives have been proposed as an organizational solution to mitigate opportunistic behaviour. However, empirical data-supported evidence of this proposition remains scarce. Drawing upon data obtained from Spanish farmers, our study investigates the impact of agri-food cooperatives on the incidence of opportunistic practices experienced by farmers during their interactions with suppliers and buyers. Through a propensity score matching analysis, our findings reveal that cooperative membership exerts a statistically significant negative influence on both supplier and buyer opportunism in the context of complying with sustainability requirements. These findings provide compelling empirical evidence of the pivotal role played by agri-food cooperatives in addressing opportunism within the supply chain. Importantly, they underscore the vital importance of cooperatives in mitigating the challenges associated with enhancing sustainability in agriculture.

Boosting innovativeness in organic farming: the role of external relational capital

PurposeFollowing the contextual approach to intellectual capital, this study analyzed the specific types of external relational capital that foster product/service, process and managerial innovativeness in organic farming as key drivers of sustainable food production.Design/methodology/approachSurvey data from 358 organically certified Spanish farmers were analyzed using structural equation modeling based on partial least squares. A total of three models, one for each type of innovativeness, were developed to analyze the impact of external relational capital. These models took into account four specific types of relational capital: vertical relationships, horizontal relationships, relationships with government institutions and relationships with knowledge-intensive institutions.FindingsAlthough relational capital and innovativeness are clearly underdeveloped, knowledge generated through and embedded in external relationships plays a substantial role in promoting innovativeness in organic farming. Moreover, depending on the type of innovation to be developed, the type of external relational capital that is relevant differs.Practical implicationsThis study's findings indicate that organic farmers prioritize process innovation over product/service and managerial innovation. For the latter categories, building relationships with customers, consumers and government institutions is key. Policymakers should encourage farmer-engaging socialization spaces that emphasize family farms and their knowledge contribution.Originality/valuePast studies have examined the overall degree of association between external relational capital and innovation, often overlooking the nuances of contextual factors. In contrast, this research delves into the unique contributions of knowledge sourced from various external relationships, focusing specifically on how these relationships influence different types of innovation within the specific context of organic farming.

Assessment of the 2020 post-market environmental monitoring report on the cultivation of genetically modified maize MON 810 in the EU.

Following a request from the European Commission; the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) assessed the 2020 post‐market environmental monitoring (PMEM) report on the cultivation of Cry1Ab‐expressing maize event MON 810. Like previous years, there was full compliance with refuge requirement in Portugal and partial compliance with refuge requirements by Spanish farmers growing MON 810 varieties. European and Mediterranean corn borer populations collected from north‐eastern Spain during the 2020 maize growing season and tested for Cry1Ab susceptibility show no symptoms of resistance to maize MON 810. The assessment of farmer questionnaires and relevant scientific publications does not indicate any unanticipated adverse effects on human and animal health or the environment arising from the cultivation of maize MON 810. Overall, EFSA concludes that the evidence reported in the 2020 PMEM report does not invalidate previous EFSA evaluations on the safety of maize MON 810. However, as in previous years, EFSA identifies shortcomings on resistance monitoring that need revision in future reports. In particular, the monitoring plan, as implemented in 2020, is not sufficiently sensitive to detect the recommended 3% resistance allele frequency. Consequently, EFSA strongly recommends the consent holder to achieve full compliance with refuge obligations in areas where adoption of maize MON 810 is high and increase the sensitivity of the monitoring plan by performing periodic F2‐screens on corn borer populations from north‐eastern Spain. EFSA recommends revising the farmer questionnaires when new characteristics of the receiving environment emerge which are relevant for the environmental risk assessment of MON 810 such as the emergence of teosinte. EFSA encourages the Competent authorities of concerned EU Member States, the consent holder and environmental networks to engage in a dialogue to develop a framework on how to best identify and report unexpected adverse effects from the cultivation of Bt maize varieties.

Identification of Farmers’ Barriers to Implement Sustainable Management Practices in Olive Groves

Current European agriculture policies and strategies are aimed to boost the transition from the predominant conventional to a more environmentally friendly agriculture model. As part of this, it is crucial to identify the barriers that exist to implementing crop-specific management practices so that appropriate mitigating steps to overcome these can be executed. Participatory action research, where farmers are research actors rather than objects, is essential to identify the main barriers farmers have to face. The objective of this study was to identify the main barriers to the adoption of a combination of sustainable management practices in olive cropping in Southern Spain. A 20-item questionnaire was designed and responded to by 200 Spanish olive farmers. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to assess the factor structure. The final best fit model included 14 items that were grouped in the following four barriers or facilitators: “lack of training/formation”, and “lack of economic/policy support” as barriers; “wellbeing–nature connection” and “environmental impact awareness” as facilitators. The mean scores on the different factors were higher than the theoretical mean, so the identification of the two barriers and the two facilitators for implementing sustainable practices was robust. Farmers, especially women, are concerned about their knowledge limitation in implementing sustainable management practices, which opens a window of opportunity for specific actions (i.e., training and demonstrative events) to be taken for accomplishing the agriculture sector transformation.

Assessment of the 2019 post-market environmental monitoring report on the cultivation of genetically modified maize MON 810 in the EU.

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA assessed the 2019 post‐market environmental monitoring (PMEM) report on the cultivation of Cry1Ab‐expressing maize event MON 810. Like previous years, there was full compliance with refuge requirement in Portugal and partial compliance with refuge requirements by Spanish farmers growing MON 810 varieties. European and Mediterranean corn borer populations collected from north‐eastern Spain during the 2019 maize growing season and tested for Cry1Ab susceptibility show no symptoms of resistance to maize MON 810. The assessment of farmer questionnaires and relevant scientific publications does not indicate any unanticipated adverse effects on human and animal health or the environment arising from the cultivation of maize MON 810. Overall, EFSA concludes that the evidence reported in the 2019 PMEM report does not invalidate previous EFSA evaluations on the safety of maize MON 810. However, as in previous years, EFSA identifies shortcomings on resistance monitoring that need revision in future reports. In particular, the monitoring plan, as implemented in 2019, is not sufficiently sensitive to detect the recommended 3% resistance allele frequency. Consequently, EFSA strongly recommends the consent holder to achieve full compliance with refuge obligations in areas where adoption of maize MON 810 is high and increase the sensitivity of the monitoring plan by performing periodic F2 screens on corn borer populations from north‐eastern Spain. EFSA recommends revising the farmer questionnaires when new characteristics of the receiving environment emerge which are relevant for the environmental risk assessment of MON 810 such as the emergence of teosinte. EFSA encourages the Competent authorities of concerned EU Member States, the consent holder and environmental networks to engage in a dialogue to develop a framework on how to best identify and report unexpected adverse effects from the cultivation of Bt maize varieties.

Transgene behavior in genetically modified teosinte hybrid plants: transcriptome expression, insecticidal protein production and bioactivity against a target insect pest

BackgroundIn 2009, Spanish farmers reported a novel weed, now identified as a relative of maize’s ancestor, teosinte, in their maize fields. Introgression of the insect resistance transgene cry1Ab from genetically modified (GM) maize into populations of this weedy Spanish teosinte could endow it with additional defense mechanisms. The aims of this study were: (1) to test if hybridization between GM maize and weedy plants from Spain is possible; (2) to understand the relationship between transgene transcription activity, concentrations of the expected transgene product (Cry1Ab protein) and the bioactivity of the latter on target insect pests following transgene flow from GM maize into Spanish teosinte plants.ResultsWe demonstrated that hybridization between GM maize and the weedy Spanish teosinte is possible, with no observable barrier to the formation of crop/weed hybrids when teosinte served as pollen donor. When GM maize plants were used as pollen donors, significant crossing incompatibility was observed: hybrid plants produced only few “normal” seeds. Nevertheless, viable F1 seeds from GM pollen crossed onto teosinte were indeed obtained. The cry1Ab transgene was stably expressed as mRNA in all crossings and backgrounds. Similarly, toxicity on neonate Ostrinia nubilalis, presumably due to Cry1Ab protein, was consistently expressed in teosinte hybrids, with mortality rates 95% or higher after only 4 days exposure, similar to rates on parental GM maize plants. Nevertheless, no strong correlations were observed between transgene transcription levels and Cry1Ab concentrations, nor between Cry1Ab concentrations and insect mortality rates across all of the different genetic backgrounds.ConclusionsOur results establish fundamental parameters for environmental risk assessments in the European context: first, we show that crop/weed hybridization in fields where maize and teosinte exist sympatrically can lead to potentially catastrophic transfer of resistance traits into an already noxious weed; second, our results question the viability of using gene dosage to model and predict ecological performance in either the intended crop plant or the undesired teosinte weed. Significant questions remain that should be addressed in order to provide a scientific, sound approach to the management of this novel weed.

Farmers’ perceptions towards scavengers are influenced by implementation deficits of EU sanitary policies

Conservation regulations are instrumental for effective nature preservation, but several compliance and implementation failures jeopardize the achievement of their objectives, with strong potential to erode their legitimacy. Understanding how such deficits impact on stakeholders' perceptions is a matter of concern in pursuing truly effective tools. Here, using as case study the heterogeneous implementation of EU sanitary regulations which allow livestock carcasses to be left in situ in the Iberian Peninsula, we evaluated how uneven implementation affects farmers' perceptions towards scavengers. We interviewed 109 farmers at the border between Spain, with designated Scavenger Feeding Zones (SFZs), and Portugal, where SFZs are still under way. We detected a deficit in the implementation of European sanitary regulation and a low knowledge of this legislation by farmers (10%), which led to marked differences between countries in the perception of farmers on scavengers. Despite being expected to benefit from SFZs, Spanish farmers valued scavengers worse than Portuguese farmers. This unexpected outcome would be mediated by ca. 95% of the Spanish farmers interviewed ( n = 48) still using the carcass collection system set after the outbreak of the mad cow disease, instead of adopting the new rules allowing carcasses abandonment at SFZs. Contrastingly, ca. 28% of the Portuguese farmers ( n = 61) left livestock carcasses in the field without official approval. Our results support the initial hypothesis of more positive perceptions of scavengers by farmers leaving livestock carcasses in situ, while warning against assuming effective implementation of sanitary regulations in reality. Worryingly, as illustrated by the negative perception of Spanish farmers towards vultures, these implementation failures could turn out to an emergent farmer-wildlife conflict, which can jeopardize scavenger conservation.

Application of reverse transcription and droplet digital PCR (RT-ddPCR) for detection of tomato torrado virus (ToTV) in greenhouse whitefly

The technology of droplet digital PCR is considered to be third-generation technology of nucleic acid amplification recently developed for the diagnostics of phytopathogens, such as bacteria, nematodes, fungi and viruses. Due to its high sensitivity, precision and no need to use standard curves and/or reference genes it is an alternative to a real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). This paper presents the possibility of using the reverse transcription technique followed by ddPCR (RT-ddPCR) to detect tomato torrado virus, ToTV in the greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), which is a real source of ToTV in tomato cultivation, especially in southern European countries, where it’s increased occurrence has been observed. The analysis of cDNA template evaluation of the virus RNA copies in a single adult greenhouse whitefly showed that it could carry from 220 to even 8600 copies of the virus gene. Due to the lack of effective antiviral agents, innovative and rapid viruses diagnostic assays are the essence of the fight against development of viral diseases. Therfore reported here RT-ddPCR protocol for the detection of ToTV in whiteflies may be an effective tool for monitoring the real threat of the tomato disease described by Spanish farmers as ”torrao”.

Constructing a Picturesque Spain: An Empirical Approach to Women Travelogues Written in English (1842–1949)

Constructing a Picturesque Spain: An Empirical Approach to Women Travelogues Written in English (1842–1949) Alberto Egea Fernández-Montesinos “The picturesque is a grammar of images with layered effects.” (Conron 67) “Our souvenirs of Córdova are a mixture of mezquitas and mosquitos.” (Pitt Byrne 317) The search for the picturesque has been a traveler’s obsession for centuries. In the case of Spain, discovering a hidden oriental view of the Alhambra, unveiling a non-touristic tablao for authentic flamenco or just capturing a shot of a picturesque character has been a commonplace endeavor for visitors since the advent of modernity. In this search for the hidden picturesque that reaches to this day, accidents of tourists falling into a lake or suffering an accident from a cliff are unfortunately common as seen in popular travel blogs and trending Instagram pics. These types of misfortunes might seem very postmodern for some, but its origins can be traced back precisely to the beginnings of the use of the term ‘picturesque’. In his comic poem of 1812, William Combe presents Dr. Syntax’s travels and how he stumbles into a lake while attempting to reach the best location for the perfectly picturesque sketch of a ruined castle [Figure 1]. Besides this anecdotical fall, what makes Coombe’s book a pioneer is how it questions the British obsession with the aesthetics of the picturesque. Combe formulates a critical voice right at the peak of the debate about the three main categories of representation of the time: The Beautiful, the Sublime, and the newly formulated Picturesque.1 Coombe’s work is a foundational piece in this regard since the author satirized the aesthetic ideals lying behind the picturesque which is precisely the main topic of this essay. The following pages explore why the picturesque was so extensively and obsessively used for decades to describe anything Spanish. The purpose is to understand why this term [End Page 112] was chosen and what effects it has had in the construction of an image of Spain which persists to this day. A good point of departure could be to ask oneself what was there about Spain that made the writing and reading of travel narratives so attractive for such a large audience in various English-speaking countries. To this end, I propose a classification of the various acceptations of the term ‘picturesque’ trying to establish when and how it is applied to a wide variety of situations, characters, objects and enclaves. The classification resulting with the various meanings of ‘picturesque’ can serve as a propaedeutic for future nation branding analysis and travel studies.2 Click for larger view View full resolution Figure 1. “Doctor Syntax Tumbling into the Water” (106). This image is licensed with a CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 permit from Creative Commons. Picturesque seems to be the default term to refer to Spain from a foreign gaze in this very diverse corpus of writers and travelogues. No matter the geographical origin of the author, the time period of the trip or the regions visited, one common denominator was the use of the term ‘picturesque’. If one adjective had to be chosen to summarize how Spain is represented out of the diversity of texts, decades, and authors, it would be the term ‘picturesque’. From northern Spanish farmers to folkloric costumes, from oriental architecture to culinary customs, from landscapes to historical characters, all of them were unequivocally described as picturesque. Regarding the authors of the travelogues, during the last two centuries, numerous women writers arrived in Spain from the United Kingdom, the United States and other English-speaking countries, and dedicated a significant part of their leisure time to writing about various aspects of Spanish culture. The critical attention obtained by their travelogues is surprisingly insignificant compared to that of their male counterparts. Even if these [End Page 113] women texts have literary, anthropological and rhetorical values worth analyzing, there has been very little interest in studying the same processes which took place in accounts written by men.3 This neglect is more surprising if we consider the important number of travelogues written by these women which have become available recently through new digital databases...

شبه جزیرة إیبیریا فی التنافس البریطانی الفرنسی فی أوروبا 1807-1813م

أولا - کانت الحملة على إسبانيا دون أدنى مبرر موضوعي مقنع للشعب الفرنسي الذي کان يدفع من دمه وحريته ثمنا للحروب التي لا تنتهي من أجل مجد فرنسا لم يکن هناک مبرر لتلک الغزوة الجديدة اللهم إلا إهداء عرش إسبانيا إلى أخيه، هکذا فهم الشعب الفرنسي تلک الحرب التي کانت أول درجة في سلم سقوطه حتى إنه اعترف هو نفسه بها کخطأ فادح(1) . ثانيا- يبدو أن نابليون حکم على الشعب الإسباني من خلال حکمه على الأسرة الحاکمة الإسبانية فارتکب خطأ فاحشا؛ لأن الشعب الإسباني من الشعوب الجبلية العنيدة التي تکره الخضوع لأجنبي، خاصة، وأن لديها مقومات الکفاح والحرب مستندة إلى وعورة الهضبة الإيبيرية (2) . ثالثا- لقد کانت العاطفتان الرئيستان عند الشعب الإسباني هما :الدين، والعزة القومية، فدفعته هاتان العاطفتان إلى مقاومة الفرنسيين بعناد لم تکن هناک حقا حکومة تتکلم باسم إسبانيا کلها، فراحت الأقاليم والمدن تعلن تلقائيا رفضها لحکم نابليون(3). رابعا- الحقيقة أن الفضل الأکبر لتلک اليقظة التي عمت أوروبا کلها إنما رجعت في المرتبة الأولى إلى عصابات المزارعين والرهبان الإسبانية التي لم تکف عن مقاومة الفرنسيين ببسالة، ففي خلال عام1810وقعت معارک حامية الوطيس، وقام بها سولت ناى ومسينا أشهر قواد نابليون بالتنکيل بالشعب الإسباني وطاردوا قوات بريطانيا إلى سواحل البرتغال، ولکن أمام مقاومة الشعب الإسباني وجيشه المبعثر وسط صفوف حرب العصابات استطاع الإسبان الانتصار على نابليون وجنوده(4). خامسا-لم تکن هزيمة القوات الفرنسية في حروب شبه جزيرة إيبيريا نابعة من عجز نابليون عن تخطيطه للمعرکة، بل وضع الخطط التي تؤهله للانتصار بالإضافة إلى جمع عدد کبير من الجنود، ولکن يکمن وراء هزيمة نابليون في إسبانيا عدم تنفيذ جوزيف لأوامر نابليون، حيث تکدر نابليون؛ لأن قواده في إسبانيا لم ينفذوا أوامره حق التنفيذ، فلم يکن جوزيف يمتلک حنکة حربية. فقد کان يشتهر أنه حکيم عاقل کريم محب للإصلاح، کما إن نابليون لم يکن يعرف حقيقة عدد الجيش الإنجليزي القادم لنجدة إسبانيا (5). سادسا-على الرغم من الجهود التي بذلها نابليون في حربه في شبه جزيرة إيبيريا، إلا إن هناک ثغرة ربما کانت السبب في هزيمته، وهي أن الجنود التي اصطحبها في خوض المعارک کانت جنود مرتزقة من مختلف البلاد والجنسيات واللهجات لا يمکنهم الاجتماع علي قلب رجل واحد أو الانضباط مثل الجيوش المحلية الوطنية (6). Abstract: First, the campaign Napoleon waged against Spain had no rational justification to convince the French people, who sacrificed their blood and freedom for the glory of France in such endless wars. The sole underlying reason behind this new invasion had been to give the throne of Spain to his brother. This is what the French people realized about that war, admitting that it was a fatal mistake that led to sowing their downfall. Second, it seems that Napoleon misjudged the Spanish people as he thought they were like the Spanish Royal Family, which was a grave mistake as the Spanish are of the stubborn mountain peoples who hate to submit to a foreigner, especially as they have the elements of struggle and war based on the ruggedness of the Iberian Plateau. Third, the two main emotions of the Spanish people were religion and national pride. In fact, there was no government that spoke for all of Spain, and the provinces and cities eventually declared their rejection of Napoleon's rule. Fourth, in fact, the greatest credit for this vigilance that pervaded Europe was first and foremost due to the gangs of Spanish farmers and monks who persevered in resisting the French valiantly. In 1810, fierce battles were fought by Salt, Nyen and Messina, Napoleon's most famous leader, where they nailed the Spanish people and chased the British troops to the coast of Portugal. However, the Spanish were able to defeat Napoleon and his soldiers, thanks to their army scattered in the midst of guerrilla warfare. Fifth, the defeat of The French forces in the wars of the Iberian Peninsula was not due to Napoleon's inability to plan the battle, but the development of plans that would qualify him for victory, in addition to gathering a large number of soldiers. Nevertheless, the defeat of Napoleon in Spain lies in the failure of Joseph to carry out Napoleon's orders, as Napoleon was troubled because his commanders in Spain did not execute his orders. Joseph did not have the acumen of warfare; he was known to be a wise, sane, and generous reformer, and Napoleon did not really know how many English troops were coming to rescue Spain. Sixth, despite Napoleon's efforts in his war on the Iberian Peninsula, a loophole may have been the reason for his defeat: the soldiers he took to fight were mercenary soldiers from different countries, nationalities, and dialects, who could not have common grounds or shared goals like the local national armies.

Assessment of the 2018 post‐market environmental monitoring report on the cultivation of genetically modified maize MON 810 in the EU

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA assessed the 2018 post‐market environmental monitoring (PMEM) report on the cultivation of Cry1Ab‐expressing maize event MON 810. Like previous years, there was partial compliance with refuge requirements by Spanish farmers growing MON 810 varieties. European and Mediterranean corn borer populations collected from north‐eastern Spain during the 2018 maize growing season and tested for Cry1Ab susceptibility show no symptoms of resistance to maize MON 810. The assessment of farmer questionnaires and relevant scientific publications does not indicate any unanticipated adverse effects on human and animal health or the environment arising from the cultivation of maize MON 810. The report does not provide information about the use of existing networks involved in environmental monitoring. Overall, EFSA concludes that the evidence reported in the 2018 PMEM report does not invalidate previous EFSA evaluations on the safety of maize MON 810. However, as in previous years, EFSA identifies shortcomings on resistance monitoring that need revision in future reports. In particular, the monitoring plan, as implemented in 2018, is not sufficiently sensitive to detect the recommended 3% resistance allele frequency. Consequently, EFSA strongly recommends the consent holder to: (1) achieve full compliance with refuge obligations in areas where adoption of maize MON 810 is high; (2) increase the sensitivity of the monitoring plan and address previously mentioned limitations for resistance monitoring; and (3) perform an F2 screen on corn borer populations from north‐eastern Spain. A fit‐for‐purpose farmer alert system may help to detect unexpected adverse effects associated with the cultivation of MON 810 varieties and be an alternative to the current farmer survey system. Moreover, relevant stakeholders should implement a methodological framework to enable making the best use of existing networks involved in environmental monitoring for the general surveillance of genetically modified plants.

Analysis of Factors Affecting the Rearing of Early-Weaned Lambs of Dairy Breeds for the Meat Market

Sheep farming makes an important socio-economic contribution to Spain’s rural areas by sustaining farming and employment in less favored regions, but it is a low-profit sector because of high operating and regulatory costs. One possible solution would be to raise for slaughter lambs from dairy sheep that are not required as replacements. However, the early weaning of these lambs and their artificial rearing generally lead to reduced growth rates and high mortalities. In the work presented herein, three housing systems (slat + heating plate, slat + infrared lamp, and deep-litter + infrared lamp) were tested on 763 lambs over an eight-month period in a farm located in Ejea de los Caballeros (Zaragoza, Spain), with a view to reducing mortality during the period of artificial lactation. The effect of the environmental parameters of the lamb housing on the development of the lambs was evaluated by monitoring environmental (temperature, relative humidity, CO2 and NH3) and productive parameters (weight, average daily gain, and deaths). The results suggested that the combination of deep litter with straw bedding and infrared lamp heating would be the most favorable option, as it led to the highest average daily gain and the lowest percentage of deaths. From the study of the relationship of the initial weight with deaths, a prediction curve was obtained, defining the maximum prices to be paid per lamb as a function of their initial weight to guarantee the profitability of the raising process. This may be regarded as a valuable guidance for Spanish sheep farmers, as it can reduce their economic uncertainty.

Price transmission and market integration: Vertical and horizontal price linkages for gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) in the Spanish market

This work presents the results of price integration analysis in the gilthead seabream market in Spain (Sparus aurata). The main objective of this work is to analyze market delimitation and price transmission from the primary sector to the retail stage. It also aims to test the influence of international trade on domestic prices for different intra and extra EU seabream trade flows. International competition depending of the country of origin was studied considering Spanish ex-farm prices and Spanish import prices from Greece and Turkey. Price interactions mechanisms were studied by applying price transmission analyses considering ex-farm, wholesale and retail Spanish prices. Empirical analyses were developed using monthly prices for the period 2009–2016. The analysis at the import/ex-farm levels allows concluding that the fresh seabream market is delimited and price competitive. Domestic farmed seabream is affected by import prices. The evolution of prices is correlated and the products behave as substitutes. International competition is led by Turkish exports. The rest of participants, Greek exporters and Spanish farmers, adjust their prices according to the changes in those of Turkey. The analysis of price behavior along the value chain shows asymmetry in the transmission of prices. Spanish farmers are not transferring their costs to the following steps in the value chain since the price at wholesale and retail levels are not affected by changes in the ex-farm price. In contrast, the prices of domestic farmers are affected by those of imports and domestic traders.

El Sistema de Cooperativas Agrarias en España: desde el corporativismo hasta la actualidad

Desde los inicios de las Cooperativas agrícolas en España en el siglo XIX, se intentó agrupar a todos los agricultores españoles formando una colectividad agrícola por lo que, tras la llegada de la Segunda República se intento dar un gran impulso tanto democrático y, respecto a las mujeres en la intervención de las Cooperativas en España, aunque fue muy breve su legislación. Tras la instauración de la época franquista fueron intervenidas y, su personal depurado, incluso el cooperativismo católico-social sufrió estos avatares a pesar de su lealtad y participación desde el primer momento con los sublevados en la contienda por lo que predominaba el hombre sobre la mujer en el momento de la formación de las Cooperativas agrícolas hasta la llegada de la democracia y, mediante la promulgación de la Constitución Española de 27 de diciembre de 1978, por tanto dio paso a la promulgación de la Ley de Cooperativas de 1999 paliándose el régimen jurídico de las Cooperativas en España, incluso a efectos de las Comunidades Autónomas que promulgaron sus legislaciones incluyendo la igualdad efectiva entre hombres y mujeres la igualdad efectiva entre hombres y mujeres en el ámbito del régimen de Cooperativas.

History, construction characteristics and possible reuse of Spain’s network of silos and granaries

The National Network of Silos and Granaries, where Spanish farmers once pooled and stored their wheat for sale to the State monopsony, was built in 1951–1990. Of the 952 storage units identified in this study, 670 are vertical or silos and 282 horizontal or granaries. With the phase-out of interventionist policies, both types gradually became redundant and were abandoned altogether after 2001. While the granaries are now being reused, the silos constitute an expense that the government is trying to elude by auctioning them off. This paper discusses the development and geographic distribution of grain storage units, focusing on the most prominent characteristics of 50 silos in the Castilla y León region and the changes in their condition over a 5year period. The silos studied, located in major grain farming areas, grew in size and technological sophistication during the 40 years of network activity. The importance of these structures as part of Spain’s agro-industrial heritage is stressed and the few instances in which they have been converted for use as museums, lookouts or theatres are described. Proposals pending implementation for their repurposing as restaurants, event and exhibition venues, offices, theatres or wildlife conservation sites are also discussed. The examples of such reuse found in other autonomous communities may be extrapolated to the silos in Castilla y León. The indicators analysed would appear to infer that such proposals or other similar projects are only feasible in villages with a certain threshold population.

Opinion of Spanish Consumers on Hydrosustainable Pistachios.

Fruits and vegetables cultivated under controlled deficit irrigation (CDI) are called hydrosustainable (hydroSOS) products and have its own personality and are environmentally-friendly. Focus groups helped in classifying key farming, sensory, and health concepts associated with CDI-grown pistachios. Besides, focus groups also helped in stating that a logo was needed for these special foods, and that a hydroSOS index is also essential to certify that the products have been controlled by a control board. Conjoint analysis was used to check which attributes could be helpful in promoting CDI-grown pistachios among Spanish consumers in a 1st step toward the European Union (EU) market. It was clearly proved that the main silo of properties driving the attention of Spanish consumers was that related to health. The most important attributes for pistachios were "product of Spain," "rich in antioxidant," and "crunchy"; this finding was clearly related to the popularity of regional foods, the preoccupation of European consumers for their health, and the joy related to the crunchiness of toasted nuts, respectively. The use of these 3 concepts, together with the use of the hydroSOS logo, will be essential to promote hydroSOS pistachios among Spanish and EU consumers. Finally, it is important to highlight that in general Spanish consumers were willing to pay an extra amount of 1.0 euros per kg of hydroSOS pistachios. These earnings will be essential to convince Spanish farmers to implement CDI strategies and have a sustainable and environmental-friendly use of the irrigation water.

Technical-economical aspects of the Alcarreña sheep farms in Spain and characterization of their meat products

SummaryAlcarreña is an endangered Spanish sheep breed (8 009 breeding animals) characterized by its adaptation to a particularly harsh environment and by having a sustainable pasture-based, small-scale, production model. The first objective of this study was to identify the technical-economic aspects of the Alcarreña farms, based on information obtained from surveys. The second objective was to quantify the influence of slaughter weight (12, 19 and 23 kg) on the sensory characteristics of the lamb meat. The mean age of the Alcarreña sheep farmers was lower than the average age of Spanish sheep farmers; however, generational renewal is not assured because most of the farmers’ children were still in school. Mean flock size was higher than the average Spanish sheep flock. Alcarreña sheep were reared under an extensive management system, grazed year-round and had a reproductive schedule of three lambings within 2 years. The carcass and meat qualities of the 12 and 19 kg lambs did not differ significantly, although the lightest lambs had the softest meat and the clearest subcutaneous fat. The most important differences between the lighter lambs and the 23-kg lambs were in meat and fat colour and lipid composition. Among the sensorial characteristics, the 19-kg lambs had the lowest meat fibrosity, and meat colour and slaughter weight were negatively correlated.

Potential effects of perfect seasonal climate forecasting on agricultural markets, welfare and land use: A case study of Spain

Climate forecasting has emerged as an adaptation option for agriculture to better cope with climate variability. We use a coupled climate-crop-economy modeling system to analyze the value of climate information (VOI) in Spain for the domestic agricultural sector and for international agricultural markets. Climate variability in Spain is represented by the observed variability over a 30 year history. We assume perfect accuracy of seasonal climate forecasting but distinguish conservative and proactive crop mix adjustments. We also contrast nationally restricted dissemination of Spanish climate forecasts versus global dissemination. Averaged over the simulated climate states, the global benefits of Spanish climate forecasts range between 61 and 189 million US$ per year. Agricultural consumers in Spain gain between 0.8 and 2.9 percent and Spanish farm revenues increase between 1.9 and 7.0 percent. If Spanish farmers consider crop mix choices outside historical bounds (proactive reaction) their revenues are notably higher than otherwise (conservative reaction). The VOI under favorable climate conditions is greater than under adverse climate conditions. When adverse climate conditions are forecast, negative VOI could materialize for the Spanish farmers because of production and welfare transfers from Spain to other countries. Information sharing of Spanish climate predictions with the rest of the world (ROW) increases not only global welfare but also Spanish producers' benefits. Finally, climate forecasting promotes a more efficient use of agricultural resources. The agricultural efficiency increase due to climate forecasts translates into welfare-neutral land savings of 2 percent in Spain.

Centralised electricity production from winter cereals biomass grown under central-northern Spain conditions: Global warming and energy yield assessments

The goal of this paper is to assess the sustainability of electricity production from winter cereals grown in one of the most important Spanish agricultural areas, Castilla y León Region, situated in central-northern Spain. This study analyses greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and energy balances of electricity production in a 25MWe power plant that was powered using straw biomass from three annual winter cereals (rye, triticale and oat) grown as dedicated energy crops. The results of these analyses were compared with those of electricity produced from natural gas in Spanish power plants. Assessments were performed using a wide range of scenarios, mainly based on the biomass yield variability obtained in demonstration plots of twelve different winter cereal genotypes. Demonstration plots were established in two different locations (provinces of Soria and León) of the Castilla y León Region during two crop seasons (2009/2010 and 2010/2011) using common management practices and input rates for rain-fed agriculture in these regions. Our results suggest that production of electricity from winter cereals biomass combustion yielded considerable reductions in terms of GHG emissions when compared to electricity from natural gas. Nevertheless, the results show that low biomass yields that are relatively frequent for Spanish farmers on low productivity lands may produce no significant reductions in GHG in comparison with electricity from natural gas. Consequently, the agronomic management of winter cereals should be re-examined in order to find potential improvements that achieve better energy balances and greater reductions in GHG emissions on land which is relatively uncompetitive in terms of crop yields and on existing low productivity scenarios.

Fatty acid composition of muscle and adipose tissues of organic and conventional Blanca Andaluza suckling kids

Interest in the preservation of autochthonous breeds such as the Blanca Andaluza goat (meat breed), raised under grazing-based management, has recently increased among Spanish farmers. A study of the possibilities of transformation to organic production needs to analyze the quality of their products. The aim of this study was to evaluate the fatty acid (FA) composition of muscle and adipose tissues of Blanca Andaluza goat kids under organic and conventional grazing–based management system. Twenty-four twin kids (12 males, 12 females) were selected from each system. The FA profile was determined in the longissimus thoracis muscle, kidney and pelvic fat. The percentages of C17:0, C17:1, C20:1, C20:4 n-6, C22:2 and several n-3 FAs were higher in organic meat; C12:0, C18:1 trans-11, CLA and C20:5 n-3 were lower in organic meat. The fat depots from the conventional kids showed lower percentages of C12:0, C14:0, C15:0, C17:0, C17:1, C18:3 n-3 and atherogenicity index, and higher percentage of C18:0. In the pelvic fat, the conventional kids displayed lower percentages of C16:0, C18:2 n-6 cis, PUFA, n-3 and n-6 FAs, and greater percentages of C18:1 n-9 cis and MUFA. The conventional kids displayed a major n6:n3 ratio in the kidney fat. No gender differences were observed. Significant differences were found only in some FA percentages of muscle and adipose tissues of suckling kids raised in organic and conventional livestock production systems, and due to this reason conventional grazing–based management farms could easily be transformed into organic production.