Spanish-English Dual Language Learners Research Articles

Profiles of home language experiences of Spanish-English dual language learners in migrant and seasonal head start programs

Children from migrant and seasonal farmworker (MSFW) families are among the most educationally disadvantaged and underserved groups in the United States; however, they have received limited research attention. Using a large nationally representative sample of MSFW children in Migrant and Seasonal Head Start (MSHS) programs, this study offered national portraits of MSHS Spanish-English speaking children's language experience profiles in their homes. Preschool-aged Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs; N = 280) were classified into two distinct profiles: (1) the Bilingual Exposure group (58.9%), comprising DLLs who had Spanish-English exposure from both adults and children, and (2) the Adult-Spanish, Child-Bilingual Exposure group (41.1%), consisting of DLLs who had Spanish-dominant exposure from adults and exposure to both languages from other children. Compared to the Adult-Spanish, Child-Bilingual Exposure group, children in the Bilingual Exposure group were more likely to come from non-immigrant families, had mothers with higher educational levels, and engaged in more home learning activities. When literacy skills were compared, the Adult-Spanish, Child-Bilingual Exposure group presented higher Spanish letter-word identification skills than the Bilingual Exposure group. No group differences were found in English letter-word identification and bilingual auditory comprehension. Our findings suggest the importance of Spanish language experience at home and call for tailoring educational approaches that consider the diverse home experiences of DLLs attending MSHS.

Spanish Phonological Awareness in Kindergarten Uniquely Supports Second-Grade English Morphological Awareness in Spanish-English Dual Language Learners.

This study investigated the longitudinal, cross-linguistic developmental relationships of phonological awareness (PA), letter identification (letter ID), and morphological awareness (MA) in 71 heritage Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in kindergarten and second grade. Multiple linear regression was used to test if kindergarten Spanish and English PA (sound elision and sound matching) and letter ID significantly predicted later English MA (oral derived word stress judgment, oral derivational morpheme blending, written derived word decomposition, and morphologically complex word spelling) performance in second grade. Cross-linguistically, the PA skill of sound matching in kindergarten was the most reliable predictor of MA in second grade for Spanish-English DLLs. Spanish PA explained the majority of variation in oral MA skills in English. English PA was only uniquely predictive of written MA skills in English. Both the cognitive operation of sound sequence manipulation in PA (elision or matching) and the modality of morpheme representation in MA (oral or written) appear to mediate the transfer of metalinguistic knowledge in Spanish-English DLL development in early elementary school. Results are discussed within the context of classroom practices.

Spanish-English dual language learners' bilingual profiles: Executive function and developmental outcomes

The current study took a strengths-based person-centered approach in examining academic and social-emotional outcomes of Spanish-English Dual Language Learning (DLL) children enrolled in Head Start. The study sample includes a total of 392 Hispanic Spanish-English DLLs (49% girls) between the ages of three and five. Latent profile analyses revealed that four groups of differing levels of bilingual proficiency existed (i.e., Emergent Bilingual, English Dominant, Spanish Dominant, and Proficient Bilingual). Overall, groups with higher language proficiency scored higher on executive functioning (EF), academic, and social-emotional outcomes. There were no differences between English and Spanish Dominant children's performance. Academic and social-emotional scores differed by profile through EF.Findings demonstrate the importance of supporting both languages as proficiency and EF were related and associated with other outcomes. Finally, given the associations found in the current study, EF appears to be a critical skill for young DLL children's academic and social-emotional development.

Crosslinguistic influence on spelling in written compositions: Evidence from English-Spanish dual language learners in primary grades

We investigated spelling errors in English and Spanish essays by Spanish-English dual language learners in Grades 1, 2, and 3 (N = 278; 51% female) enrolled in either English immersion or English-Spanish dual immersion programs. We examined what types of spelling errors students made, whether they made spelling errors that could be due to crosslinguistic influence, and whether errors were associated with instructional program, English learner status, and grade level. Compositions were transcribed and coded using the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT) software. Spelling errors were suggestive of crosslinguistic influence that was mostly unidirectional from one language to the other rather than bidirectional. Spelling errors were related to instructional program such that students in Spanish-English dual immersion made more English spelling errors in English compositions due to Spanish influence, and students in English immersion made more spelling errors in Spanish compositions due to English influence. Students in higher grades also made less English spelling errors in English compositions due to Spanish influence than students in lower grades. These findings suggest that dual language learners acquire spelling patterns in one language influenced by instruction and home language, which transfers to spelling in the other language.

Revisiting the traditional conceptualizations of vocabulary knowledge as predictors of dual language learners’ English reading achievement in a new destination state

AbstractThe unprecedented growth of Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in new destination states (e.g., Georgia, Indiana, South Carolina, Tennessee) calls for better understanding of the relation between their bilingual vocabulary skills and English reading achievement. The current study focused on school-age Spanish-English DLLs (N = 60) in Tennessee and explored how various vocabulary knowledge conceptualizations predict English reading comprehension achievement, controlling for English word reading skills and grade level. Vocabulary knowledge was assessed using monolingual (English-only and Spanish-only) and bilingual (conceptual and total) scoring methods. Results showed that, while DLLs performed below the national mean for English-only and Spanish-only vocabulary, they performed within the average to above-average range for bilingually scored conceptual vocabulary. More uniquely, the expressive vocabulary knowledge emerged as a robust predictor of English reading comprehension above and beyond the influence of English word reading skills. Findings suggest practical and theoretical value of bilingually driven vocabulary assessment approaches. As expected, bilingually scored vocabulary provided a more comprehensive understanding of DLLs’ vocabulary knowledge by accounting for vocabulary knowledge in both Spanish and English, compared to monolingually scored vocabulary. We discuss theoretical and instructional implications, with a focus on asset-driven and scientific assessment understandings for supporting DLLs’ vocabulary and reading achievement in new destination states.

Teachers' Language Use in Multilingual Head Start Classrooms: Implications for Dual Language Learners.

Dual language learners (DLLs) are sensitive to teachers' language influence in early childhood classrooms. In this mixed methods study incorporating 53 teachers from 28 preschools in Northern California, we investigated the characteristics of teachers' language use in preschools teaching Chinese-English and Spanish-English DLLs. We further examined the links of teachers' language use to the DLLs' expressive vocabulary in English and their heritage language (HL), controlling for home language exposure and other confounding variables. Finally, we conducted interviews with teachers to understand how they make meaning of their daily language practices. The sample of children consisted of 190 Chinese-English (N = 125) and Spanish-English (N = 65) DLLs (mean age = 48.3 months; 48% females). The teacher survey showed that most teachers spoke two or more languages and used a mix of English and their HL during their interactions with DLLs. The results of random-intercept models showed that teachers' language use did not uniquely predict children's vocabulary, controlling for family-level factors. However, the teachers with more years of teaching DLLs oversaw children with a higher HL vocabulary. The interview data revealed that teachers employ several strategies to communicate with DLLs and support HL maintenance. Our study reveals the multilingual backgrounds of preschool teachers and the rich language strategies they implement in multilingual classrooms. Future directions concerning the quality and development of teachers' language use are discussed.

Tell or Retell? The Role of Task and Language in Spanish-English Narrative Microstructure Performance.

This study examined performance of dual language learners (DLLs) on Spanish- and English-language narrative story retells and unique tells. Transcription and analysis focused on comparisons of common microstructural language sample measures in Spanish and English across tasks. Each language sample measure was evaluated for its possible convergence with norm-referenced standardized assessments for DLL children. Spanish-English DLLs (N = 133) enrolled in English-only kindergarten or first-grade classrooms completed two-language sample tasks (one in each language), which were transcribed and analyzed using Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (Miller & Iglesias, 2017) for measures of syntactic complexity (mean length of utterance [MLU] in words), lexical diversity (number of different words [NDW]), and grammaticality (percent grammatical utterances [PGU]). Students also completed a norm-referenced sentence repetition task (Peña et al., 2014) and expressive vocabulary assessment (Martin, 2013). Comparison of story retells and unique stories revealed similar performance on MLU, NDW, and PGU across elicitation techniques, with one exception: NDW in Spanish was higher in the story retell condition. Predictive models revealed several differences in the relations between the microstructure measures and norm-referenced language measures by elicitation technique, although neither context demonstrated a consistent advantage across all metrics. Measures derived from story retells and unique tells offer practical findings for speech-language pathologists and other educators to use in assessment of early grade DLLs. This work increases knowledge of procedural differences across narrative assessments and their influence on language variables, supporting school-based speech-language pathologists in making assessment decisions for DLLs on their caseload. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.19191278.

Measuring English Narrative Microstructure in Preschool Dual Language Learners.

The purpose of the study was to examine the change in specific English microstructure features according to language ability in preschool Spanish-English dual language learners. We collected English narratives from 22 Spanish-English dual language learners with typical language development (TD) and 22 Spanish-English dual language learners with developmental language disorder (DLD) at the beginning and end of their first year in Head Start. Children came from Spanish-speaking homes and were exposed to English and Spanish in their preschool classrooms. We analyzed children's use of English microstructure across time using the Narrative Assessment Protocol. Both groups showed improvement in overall English microstructure use, although children with TD made greater gains than children with DLD. Phrase structure (noun phrases, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositional phrases) increased in both groups, but more so in children with TD than with DLD. Sentence structure (compound, complex, negative, and interrogative sentences) increased in both groups. Verb use, noun use (Tier 2 nouns and nouns marked with plural and possessive endings), and modifiers (adverbs and adjectives) neither changed across time nor differed between groups. Spanish-English dual language learners who attend Head Start and come from Spanish-speaking homes, regardless of language ability, may not readily acquire verbs, nouns, and modifiers during their first year of formal English exposure, suggesting that they would benefit from explicit instruction in these areas. Preschool Spanish-English dual language learners with DLD may make less progress than their peers with TD in phrase structure use, indicating that explicit instruction in this microstructure feature may be beneficial for children with DLD.

Self-regulation development among young Spanish-English dual language learners

Despite strong evidence self-regulation skills are critical for school readiness, there remains a dearth of longitudinal studies that describe developmental trajectories of self-regulation, particularly among low-resource and underrepresented populations such as Spanish-English dual-language learners. The present study examined individual differences in trajectories of self-regulation among 459 Spanish-English dual-language learners who were Hispanic from 4 different samples and 3 geographic locations in the United States. Self-regulation was assessed in all samples using repeated administration of the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) task from early childhood through early elementary school. Results of latent growth curve analyses revealed that growth was best represented by quadratic trajectories. Latent class growth analyses captured significant individual differences in self-regulation trajectories. One group of children (41%) started with higher HTKS scores and displayed rapid early growth in performance. A similar percentage of children (41%) displayed intermediate growth in self-regulation, starting with lower HTKS scores but displaying rapid growth commencing arrange 4.5 years. Finally, about 18% of the sample did not display growth in HTKS performance until after entry to elementary school, around age 6 years. Girls were half as likely as boys to be in this later developing group. Likewise, children from families at the upper end of the socioeconomic distribution in this low-income sample were significantly less likely to be in the later developing group relative to children from families with lower SES. Study findings indicate the importance of monitoring growth rates in self-regulation as a means of identifying children at risk for entering school without the requisite self-regulation skills.

Crosslinguistic Transfer of Higher Order Cognitive Skills and Their Roles in Writing for English-Spanish Dual Language Learners.

We investigated the dimensionality and relations between L1 and L2 writing skills in narrative and informational genres, and higher order cognitive skills-inference, perspective taking, and comprehension monitoring-for Spanish-English dual language learners in primary grades. Dimensions of written composition and higher order cognitive skills were examined, comparing nine alternative models. Data from 317 dual language learners in Grades 1 and 2 were used in confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. For the dimensionality of written composition, a unidimensional model, where writing was characterized as a single underlying construct across languages (Spanish and English) and genres (narrative & opinion), fit the data best. With regard to the dimensionality of higher order cognitive skills, data supported a bifactor model with (a) a general factor that captures common variance across languages and across inference, perspective taking, and comprehension monitoring skills and (b) specific factors by language (Spanish and English). The higher order cognition general factor was fairly strongly related to writing quality (.59), and the relation remained even after accounting for sex, poverty status, grade level, English learner status, school, and biliterate status. These relations were similar for students in English immersion program and Spanish-English dual immersion programs. These results indicate potential cross-language transfer of higher order cognitive skills, and the roles of higher order cognitions in written composition for Spanish-English dual language learners.

A preliminary study of the relationship between working memory, language experience, and grammatical skill in dual language learners

Purpose: This study examined the relationship between verbal short-term and working memory, language experience, and English tense-marking skill in Spanish L1-English L2 dual language learners (DLLs). Methodology: Ten Spanish-English DLLs, in kindergarten and first grade, participated in the study. Children completed the Test of Early Grammatical Impairment, a narrative retell task in English, and verbal memory tasks. Parents provided information regarding language input and output in the home and school environment. Data and analysis: Correlational analyses were conducted to examine relationships between English and Spanish input/output, forward and backward digit span, assessed in English and Spanish, and the accurate and productive use of English tense morphemes in various linguistic contexts. Conclusions: Study outcomes indicated varied use of English tense morphemes among DLLs. Additionally, a strong, positive association was found between the use of a variety of distinct tense forms and verbal working memory performance. Originality: This study is the first investigation to examine verbal short-term and working memory and home language experience to advance our understanding of the specific child internal and external factors that may account for the variability in tense marking during English second language acquisition. Significance: This research provides further insight to the effects of individual differences on the acquisition of second language grammatical skill during childhood.

Phonetic discrimination, phonological awareness, and pre-literacy skills in Spanish-English dual language preschoolers.

The current study explores variation in phonemic representation among Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs, n = 60) who were dominant in English or in Spanish. Children were given a phonetic discrimination task with speech sounds that: 1) occur in English and Spanish, 2) are exclusive to English, and 3) are exclusive to Russian, during Fall (age m = 57 months) and Spring (age m = 62 months, n = 42). In Fall, English-dominant DLLs discriminated more accurately than Spanish-dominant DLLs between English-Spanish phones and English-exclusive phones. Both groups discriminated Russian phones at or close to chance. In Spring, however, groups no longer differed in discriminating English-exclusive phones and both groups discriminated Russian phones above chance. Additionally, joint English-Spanish and English-exclusive phonetic discrimination predicted children's phonological awareness in both groups. Results demonstrate plasticity in early childhood through diverse language exposure and suggest that phonemic representation begins to emerge driven by lexical restructuring.

Mazes in Spanish-English dual language learners after language enrichment: a case study

ABSTRACT The number of Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in the United States continues to increase every year. In the absence of developmental language norms for DLLs it is important to learn more about typical language production characteristics to distinguish typical from atypical language characteristics. An area of language production with conflicting results in the literature is the production of mazes. Mazes are interruptions in the forward flow of language in the form of interjections, repairs or revisions of words and phrases. At elevated rates, mazes may interrupt the communication process. A common practice in classroom settings is to provide support for DLLs through small group activities such as language enrichment. It is unknown if maze patterns may change as a result of structured language input meant to increase linguistic skills. This preliminary case study explored maze patterns in four Spanish-English DLLs between the ages of 5;4 and 6;1 before and after two structured language enrichment sessions in English. Pretest and posttest narratives in English and Spanish were analyzed for maze patterns and measures of language productivity using conventional language sample analysis metrics. Maze patterns yielded mixed results. Certain maze types increased from pre to posttest while some decreased. Participants exhibited increases in measures of language productivity in English and Spanish. Language productivity and maze patterns demonstrated changes after two structured language enrichment sessions. Implications for further study of maze patterns in Spanish-English DLLs are discussed.

Comparing Vocabulary Knowledge Conceptualizations Among Spanish-English Dual Language Learners in a New Destination State.

Purpose Despite the unprecedented growth of Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in new destination states-where DLLs have not been historically served-empirical understanding of their language and literacy skills is scant. Drawing on scientific understandings of bilingual language acquisition, we compare monolingually scored and bilingually scored vocabulary knowledge of Spanish-English DLLs in a new destination state. Method Participants included second- and fourth-grade Spanish-English DLLs (N = 60) in a large urban school district in a new destination state. Students were considered DLLs if their parents indicated that Spanish was spoken at home to some extent. We utilized monolingually scored (Spanish-only and English-only) and bilingually scored (conceptual and total) conceptualizations of vocabulary knowledge. Descriptive analysis and Bonferroni-adjusted multiple comparisons were used to compare vocabulary knowledge by assessment approach (i.e., monolingual or bilingual), grade (i.e., second and fourth), and English proficiency status (i.e., limited English proficient and English proficient). Results Findings revealed that (a) DLLs, across grade levels and English proficiency status, demonstrated higher bilingual vocabulary scores compared to monolingual scores and stronger receptive vocabulary performance than expressive vocabulary performance and (b) DLLs' response patterns varied depending on the bilingual assessment approach used, with DLLs in limited English-proficient and English-proficient groups evidencing similar response patterns. Conclusions Bilingual scoring of vocabulary knowledge provides a more holistic understanding of elementary-aged DLLs' language skills. Results represent an important step toward shifting school-based assessment practices to incorporate comprehensive and equitable ways to conceptualize and measure elementary-aged Spanish-English DLLs' vocabulary knowledge.

Vocabulary and Phonological Abilities Affect Dual Language Learners' Consonant Production Accuracy Within and Across Languages: A Large-Scale Study of 3- to 6-Year-Old Spanish-English Dual Language Learners.

Purpose This study examined factors of language ability that predict consonant production accuracy in young Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs). Method Participants were 695 Latino DLLs, ages 3;0-6;5 (years;months). Single-word productions were elicited using the Bilingual Phonological Assessment (Miccio & Hammer, 2006). Children's consonant productions were assessed using Percentage of Consonants Correct-Revised (PCC-R; Shriberg et al., 1997a). Vocabulary abilities were assessed using the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised (Woodcock et al., 2005). Multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine the effects of vocabulary abilities and cross-language consonant production abilities on children's consonant production accuracy in each language. Results Large amounts of the variance in PCC-R scores for English (R 2 = .65) and Spanish (R 2 = .43) were predicted by children's age, vocabulary scores within the same language, and PCC-R scores across languages. Conclusion Spanish-English DLLs' consonant production abilities in both languages improve with age between 3;0 and 6;5. DLLs' accuracy in each language is also affected by vocabulary abilities within the same language and by their consonant production abilities in the other language. In particular, children's consonant production abilities in each language were highly predictive of their consonant production abilities in the other language, which suggests that shared phonological skills support their development across languages.

Early Literacy Skill Growth in Spanish-Speaking Children With and At Risk for Disabilities in Early Childhood

For young Spanish–English dual language learners (SE-DLLs), early literacy skills, including phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge in Spanish as well as English, are crucial to their reading success. However, there is a lack of research about how SE-DLLs develop early literacy skills, and how their rates of performance can inform evidence-based intervention. This article examined to what degree SE-DLLs with disabilities or at risk for later reading difficulties on early literacy skills demonstrated growth on English and Spanish measures of early literacy when compared with their typically developing peers. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze growth for 325 SE-DLLs on four Individual Growth and Development Indicators that assessed phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge in English and Spanish. Results indicated that at-risk and typically developing children showed significant slopes for all measures and that at-risk children grew faster than typically developing children on Spanish alphabet knowledge measures.

Exploring the Cross-Linguistic Contribution of Spanish and English Academic Language Skills to English Text Comprehension for Middle-Grade Dual Language Learners

In this study, we examine the unique and shared contributions of Spanish and English core academic language skills (CALS) to English reading comprehension in a population of Spanish-English dual language learners in Grades 4 and 5 (n = 165). We focus on cross-disciplinary CALS, operationalized as sets of high-utility lexical, syntactic and discourse resources prevalent in school texts. This study finds that Spanish and English CALS are positively and significantly related, and, further, that both sets of skills exert a unique positive influence on English reading comprehension. Aligned with an interpretation of linguistic interdependence between Spanish and English academic language skills, results document their cross-linguistic contribution to reading comprehension for students enrolled in educational programs that foster literacy and content learning regularly in two languages.

Change in language and literacy knowledge for Spanish–English dual language learners at school-entry: Analyses from three studies

Over 30% of children in the U.S. are dual language learners (DLLs) who are learning two languages. Understanding the development of both languages for young DLL children in early care and education is critical. However, few have simultaneously examined development of skills in both languages for children in preschool. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the language and literacy skills among Spanish–English DLL preschoolers and to directly compare change over time in language and literacy skills in both Spanish and English in secondary data analyses of three studies of DLL children. Hierarchical linear model analyses compared acquisition of language skills in English and Spanish in three studies. Using language and time as nesting factors, these models allow for direct contrast of level and rate of acquisition across languages. Results showed that Spanish-English DLL children made gains in their English abilities while being exposed to Spanish at home. Also, gains in English vocabulary skills were observed when children’s Spanish skills were higher than the English skills. Gains in children’s Spanish language abilities were not realized and children’s English language abilities did not appear to support children’s Spanish skills. Cross-language relations were observed in literacy.

A longitudinal investigation of language mixing in Spanish-English dual language learners: the role of language proficiency, variability, and sociolinguistic factors.

This study examines language mixing in 26 Spanish-English dual language learners over the course of their first year of preschool. The children's patterns of language choice while interacting in monolingual language contexts were analyzed at age 3;6 and 4;5 to examine: (1) whether the frequency of language mixing changed during the year; (2) whether mixing was related to proficiency as measured by utterance length and lexical diversity; and (3) whether there were different subgroups of children, among the participants, with similar proficiency and language use patterns. The results indicate that language mixing, which was low at both ages, was related to limited lexical resources only at 3;6. However, by age 4;5, language choice was more constrained by sociolinguistic variables - children's awareness of the language prescribed by the majority culture - than by proficiency. An exploratory cluster analysis further reveals different profiles of learners sharing similar proficiency and language mixing characteristics.

Item Bias: Predictors of Accuracy on Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition Items for Spanish-English-Speaking Children.

Purpose This study examines the response patterns of 278 Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) on a standardized test of receptive English vocabulary. Method Investigators analyzed responses to 131 items on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition ( Dunn & Dunn, 2007 ) focusing on differential accuracy on items influenced by (a) cross-linguistic overlap in phonology, (b) part of speech, and (c) word frequency. Results The differential response patterns showed cross-linguistic overlap, part of speech, and word frequency were significant predictors of the likelihood of obtaining a correct response above and beyond the expected difficulty level of the item. Conclusions All 3 factors predicted DLLs' response patterns beyond expected difficulty. Items with the highest likelihood of error included words with few or no shared features between Spanish and English translation equivalents, verbs or modifiers, and words with low frequency of occurrence. Implications Researchers should consider a cross-linguistic overlap in addition to part of speech and word frequency when designing vocabulary assessments for DLLs or utilizing such tests in research and clinical practice. Recognizing potential bias, clinicians should triangulate the appraisal of DLLs' language skills across multiple sources or measures and use caution when interpreting vocabulary assessments.