Spanish Air Force Research Articles

Analysis of heart rate variability during emergency flight simulator missions in fighter pilots

IntroductionManaging emergency situations in different simulated flight segments can entail a workload that could affect the performance of military pilots. The aim was to analyse the modifications in neurovegetative balance...

Assessing Mental Workload in Dual STEM–Air Force Language Listening Practice

Cognitive workload analysis is an important aspect of safety studies at the Spanish Air Force Academy where students must complete a dual academic curriculum based on military pilot training combined with an industrial engineering degree. Recently, a mental workload assessment (MWA) and forecasting model based on Shannon’s law from information theory (IT) has been published; it proposes a new mathematical procedure (MWA-IT) that defines a workload index that could be extrapolated to other case studies. The aim of this study was to adapt this model to the Spanish University Centre of Defence to calculate the mental workload caused by the listening practice in English as a foreign language. In addition, a contrasting methodology, the NASA task load index (NASA-TLX), was applied to validate the proposed model using the error study provided by SMAPE and MSE. The results established an expected reference baseline for MWA-IT in English listening that is between 36 and 92 at the end of the four courses, which corresponds to the students that start with the lowest English level (higher workload = 92) and the ones with the highest English level certification (lowest workload = 36); meanwhile, the NASA-TLX result was between 49.8 and 193.7 for the same circumstances. The main difference is that MWA-IT can be predicted with 41% less deviation than can NASA-TLX and does not require the completion of a questionnaire following the activities. Finally, the study also highlights the fact that that nearly 65% of the workload was caused by the first two courses, when the advanced STEM subjects were taught and the pilot learning and practice program had not yet begun. This methodology may help the teachers in charge to redesign or add new content depending on the expected workload reference.

Collateral Noise

Since 1951, Navarre’s Bardenas have housed a military firing range. Instituted during General Franco’s dictatorship, the US Air Force (USAF) took control of the range in 1970, transforming it into Europe’s largest combat training ground. NATO and the Spanish Air Force continue to make use of the range today. “Collateral” is the term the USAF uses to designate the noise of firing range-related jet activities. And yet, the Bardenas range has been primarily known, felt, and suffered as noise by and within populations and terrains brought forth as collateral, in part, by that very noise. This article scrutinizes the “collateral” and the “noise” as a way to trace a relational history, accounting for USAF noise’s excesses and its embodied experience in the Bardenas during the last years of Francoism and the democratic transition, and for Bardenas noise as implicated in and forwarding larger militarized ecologies. It proposes to understand collateral noise as a materialization of and a means for militarized imperialisms’ prevarications with the sensory realm, territories, and knowledge. And it argues that collateral noise is one of the ways in which “imperial formations” become audible and do so, specifically, in the seizure of acoustic extraterritorialities and that it is at the same time a way in which these seek to secrete themselves.

Security providing leadership and work stress in Spanish Air Force

ABSTRACT Leadership plays a key role in the well-being of military personnel, either contributing to health improvement or, conversely, becoming a source of stress. In the present study we propose that security providing leadership can reduce work stress in the military context. Furthermore, we suggest that security-providing leaders exert their positive influence on work stress by creating a psychological safety climate and preventing organizational dehumanization. A sample of 204 members (72.5% men) of the Spanish Air Force volunteered to participate in this empirical study and completed an online questionnaire and both the direct and indirect structural equation models were analyzed. Results show a negative relationship between security providing leadership and work stress. Additionally, organizational dehumanization and psychological safety climate act as mediators in this relationship. These results support this novel approach to leadership in the military context. They also offer new ways to create better organizational environments. By treating their subordinates in a personalized manner and supporting them, security-providing leaders can improve employees’ perceptions of psychological safety climate and combat feelings of organizational dehumanization, which, in turn, can reduce work stress.

Assessment from a Biopsychosocial Approach of Flight-Related Neck Pain in Fighter Pilots of Spanish Air Force. An Observational Study.

Flying on fighter aircraft is the only human activity that exposes the body to acceleration levels for long periods of time. In this sense, the regular exposure to G forces has been related to a high incidence of flight-related neck pain. The aim is to evaluate flight pilots of the Spanish Air Force (instructors vs. students) diagnosed with flight-related neck pain from a biopsychosocial perspective. Eighteen fighter pilots with flight-related neck pain were divided into two groups: instructor fighter pilots (n = 7) and student fighter pilots (n = 11). The Neck Disability Index (NDI), Cervical Range of Motion (CRoM), Pain Pressure Threshold (PPT), cervical repositioning error, and myoelectric activity were evaluated. Cervical flexion, extension and left and right rotation showed a reduced range of motion in both groups with respect to the normative values of the healthy population. There were no statistically significant differences between the groups (p ≥ 05). The correlational analysis showed a strong association between the NDI and CRoM of the left rotation (β = −0.880, p = 0.002). The NDI also had a positive association with the pilot’s age (β = 1.353, p < 0.01) and the number of flight hours (β = 0.805, p = 0.003). In conclusion, the Cervical Range of Motion at the left rotation seems to determine the perceived degree of disability in both the instructors and students. This factor could be influenced by the number of flight hours and accumulated experience as an F-5 fighter pilot.

Psychophysiological response of military pilots in different combat flight maneuvers in a flight simulator

Objective: To analyze the psychophysiological response during takeoff, landing, air-air attack and air-ground attack maneuvers. Methods: A total of 11 expert pilots (age=33.36 (5.37)) from the Spanish Air Force participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants had to complete in a flight simulator the following missions: 1) takeoff; 2) Air-air attack; 3) Air-Ground attack, and 4) Landing. The electroencephalographic activity (EEG) and heart rate variability (HRV) were collected during all these maneuvers. Results: Significant higher values of theta (during takeoff, air-air attack and air-ground attack) EEG power spectrum were obtained when compared to baseline. Significant difference in the P3 scalp location was observed between landing and takeoff maneuvers in the beta EEG power spectrum. Furthermore, significant lower values of HRV were obtained during takeoff, landing, air-air attack and air-ground attack when compared to baseline values. Also, landing showed a higher sympathetic response when compared to takeoff maneuver. Conclusion: Takeoff, landing, air-air attack or air-ground attack maneuvers performed in a flight simulator produced significant changes in the electroencephalographic activity and autonomic modulation of professional pilots. Beta EEG power spectrum modifications suggest that landing maneuvers induced more attentional resources than takeoff. In the same line, a reduced HRV during landing was obtained when compared to takeoff. These results should be considered to training purposes.

Impact of Real and Simulated Flights on Psychophysiological Response of Military Pilots.

Objective: The present research aimed to analyse the autonomic, anxiety, perceived exertion, and self-confidence response during real and simulated flights. Methods: This cross-sectional study participated 12 experienced male pilots (age = 33.08 (5.21)) from the Spanish Air Force. Participants had to complete a real and a simulated flight mission randomly. The heart rate variability (HRV), anxiety, self-confidence, and rating of perceived exertion were collected before and after both manoeuvres, and HRV was also collected during both simulated and real flights. Results: When studying the acute effects of real and simulated flights, the mean heart rate, the R-to-R interval, the cognitive anxiety and the perceived exertion were significantly impacted only by real flights. Furthermore, significant differences in the mean heart rate and RR interval were found when compared to the acute effects of real and simulated flights (with higher acute effects observed in real flights). Additionally, when compared the HRV values during simulated and real flights, significant differences were observed in the RR and heart rate mean (with lower RR interval and higher heart rate mean observed during real flights). Conclusion: Real flights significantly reduced the RR interval and cognitive anxiety while increased the heart rate mean and the rating of perceived exertion, whereas simulated flights did not induce any significant change in the autonomic modulation.

Does Emotion Regulation Predict Gains in Exercise-Induced Fitness? A Prospective Mixed-Effects Study with Elite Helicopter Pilots.

Emotion regulation (ER) is a strong predictor of different aspects of mental health and wellbeing. However, only recently has ER been examined in relation to physical activity and its effects on fitness. In the present study, 26 elite helicopter pilots, serving in the Spanish Air Force, were physically trained for 6 months, and their level of fitness (maximum oxygen consumption and time to exhaustion in a treadmill-running test) was assessed before and after that period. Additionally, two indices of emotion regulation (general adaptiveness of ER strategies, as measured by the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), and negative urgency, as measured by the UPPS-P questionnaire) measured at baseline were used as prospective predictors of fitness improvement. After controlling for individual features, baseline fitness, and type of training, better emotion regulation strategies (more cognitive reappraisal plus less expressive suppression) predicted larger fitness gains (p = 0.028). Incidental emotion regulation, as measured by the negative urgency index, failed to predict pre–post-fitness changes (p = 0.734). These results suggest that fostering emotion regulation skills may improve the effectiveness of fitness training programs.

Application of Fuzzy Reference Ideal Method (FRIM) to the military advanced training aircraft selection

When a nation needs to acquire a new military training aircraft for its Air Force, many factors must be taken into account. This requires a good command of conflicting factors, which can benefit from the domain of Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM). However, some criteria involved in the assessment process are often imprecise or vague and the use of linguistic terms characterized by fuzzy numbers could be advisable. The aim of this research is thus to extract the best of a combination of Fuzzy MCDM approaches with the aim of solving a real decision problem of interest for the Spanish Air Force, specifically, the selection of the best military advanced training aircraft, based on a set of criteria of differing natures. This decision problem involves, on the one hand, quantitative or technical criteria (combat ceiling, operational speed, take-off race, etc.) and, on the other hand, qualitative criteria (maneuverability, ergonomics, etc.) based on the experience of a set of flight instructors of the 23rd Fighter and Attack Training Wing, collected via questionnaires. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied to obtain the weights of the criteria, whereas the Reference Ideal Method (RIM) and its Fuzzy version (FRIM) are used to evaluate the alternatives based on a reference ideal alternative defined by the flight instructors mentioned above. As a result, the Italian Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master aircraft was selected as the best option.

Development of a Methodology and an Optimization Model for the Performance Evaluation of the Employees in the Public Economic Management and Procurement Systems: The Case Study of the Spanish Air Force

The economic administration and procurement system of public sector structures are composed of a series of management units whose staff assigned to them needs to be optimized. In order to achieve this, the work analyzes the concept of performance evaluation presented in the Spanish Public Administration, similar to other countries of the EU and Latin America. A methodology has been designed to evaluate performance using systemic analysis and organizational behavior, taking as a case study the Spanish Air Force. Traditional performance evaluation models are based on the psycho-sociological research of workers, which are static and require a lot of management effort. Faced with these limitations, a new dynamic and interdisciplinary model has been designed and implemented to evaluate performance and measure workload that can be used with high periodicity and requires little management effort. The model in question focuses mainly on the generation of strategic intelligence through the exploitation of the databases of the economic management information system. This strategic intelligence serves to guide decision-making regarding the reallocation of jobs and personnel to identify training needs and the necessary changes in organizational culture and leadership. In general, this model allows an improvement in the effectiveness, efficiency, economy and service level of the system, and can be applied to other Spanish military organizations or those belonging to other countries of the international community as well as other structures of the public administration dedicated to economic management and procurement.

Psychophysiological response of air mobile protection teams in an air accident manoeuvre

Different extreme contexts elicit a stress response on human body, specifically on combat produces an increase of sympathetic nervous system and a direct effect on the organic response. This research aimed to study the psychophysiological response of an air security force in a simulated air accident in a hostile area and its subsequent subterfuge to a safe area. We analyzed 13 soldiers (32.4 ± 8.0 years) from an air security force unit of the Spanish Air Force who were divided into three teams to conduct the manoeuvre. We analyzed before and after the manoeuvre psychological well-being scale, personal views survey, recovery-stress questionnaire (REST-52 Sport); heart rate variability, visual analogue scale, rated of perceived exertion, spirometry, hydration and hand strength were analyzed during the four days of the manoeuvre: This produced a significantly (p < .05) increase in sympathetic modulation, hand strength, dehydration status, general and specific stress from RESTQ-52. With this data we can conclude that an air accident manoeuvre of three nights and four days causes in the air mobile protection team a high sympathetic nervous system modulation, increases on muscle strength manifestations and stress and a dehydration status.

Evaluating military training aircrafts through the combination of multi-criteria decision making processes with fuzzy logic. A case study in the Spanish Air Force Academy

The combination of Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) processes with Fuzzy Logic can be efficiently applied to solve decision problems with criteria differing in nature. This combination is used in the present work to solve a real world decision problem of interest for the Spanish Air Force, specifically, the selection of the best military training aircraft based on a set of criteria. This decision problem involves, on one hand, quantitative or technical criteria (service ceiling, endurance, etc.) and, on the other hand, qualitative criteria (human factors, flying and handling qualities, etc.) based on the experience of a set of senior pilots and flight instructors of the Spanish Air Force collected via surveys. In order to extract information from the expert surveys, the MCDM process was combined with fuzzy logic. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to obtain the weights of the criteria and, through the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), the alternatives were evaluated. This work is a preliminary study of the training aircraft alternatives proposed by the Air Staff and the Logistic Support Command of the Spanish Air Force. These alternatives were chosen based on operational criteria which are detailed in the work. As a result of the decision process used, the best alternative was shown to be the Pilatus PC-21 aircraft.

Design and practical deployment of a network-centric remotely piloted aircraft system

Remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs) are gaining more are more relevance during the last decade since more applications are being enabled by lighter planes with increasing autonomy, higher ceilings, and more powerful transmission technologies. The integration of the RPAS as part of network-centric warfare would be a very important milestone to achieve because of the huge amount of information and capabilities that all these aircrafts can incorporate into the global scheme. This integration is easier for handheld (short-range) RPASs since their communications are typically based on digital transmission like WiFi or WiMAX, but it may not be as obvious for bigger RPASs (long-range, e.g., tactical or medium/high altitude systems) because their line of sight communications are frequently based on analog transmissions. This implies indirect integration into network-centric warfare by means of the ground control station (satellite communications, when available, may suffer notorious delay for certain applications). This article presents a recent practical experience, including flight test campaigns, deploying an all- IP communication architecture into one of the most relevant Spanish tactical RPASs, the SIVA, used by both the Spanish Army and the Spanish Air Force for the last 10 years. This deployment enables cost-effective integration of this RPAS (and its natural successor, the MILANO, a medium- altitude RPAS) into the network-centric warfare by means of direct TCP/IP transmissions over a long-range digital line of sight channel combined with satellite communications for beyond line of sight operations. The proposed design includes network-level security over the radio interfaces, automatic data link selection, support of remote video terminals, and access connectivity toward external IPv6 networks.

Intersaccadic drift velocity is sensitive to short-term hypobaric hypoxia.

Hypoxia, defined as decreased availability of oxygen in the body's tissues, can lead to dyspnea, rapid pulse, syncope, visual dysfunction, mental disturbances such as delirium or euphoria, and even death. It is considered to be one of the most serious hazards during flight. Thus, early and objective detection of the physiological effects of hypoxia is critical to prevent catastrophes in civil and military aviation. The few studies that have addressed the effects of hypoxia on objective oculomotor metrics have had inconsistent results, however. Thus, the question of whether hypoxia modulates eye movement behavior remains open. Here we examined the effects of short-term hypobaric hypoxia on the velocity of saccadic eye movements and intersaccadic drift of Spanish Air Force pilots and flight engineers, compared with a control group that did not experience hypoxia. Saccadic velocity decreased with time-on-duty in both groups, in correlation with subjective fatigue. Intersaccadic drift velocity increased in the hypoxia group only, suggesting that acute hypoxia diminishes eye stability, independently of fatigue. Our results suggest that intersaccadic drift velocity could serve as a biomarker of acute hypoxia. These findings may also contribute to our understanding of the relationship between hypoxia episodes and central nervous system impairments.

Inicios de la enfermería militar en la aviación militar española

2011 marks the first century of the Spanish military aviation, since 1911 is considered its initial year. The objective of this study is to present the first military nursing professionals that carried out their jobs in the health care of the early Spanish Air Force. The development of this study presents a basic historiographic story, linking the evolutions of health care and the Spanish military aviation, and covering the early professionals of nursing in aviation units back in 1928.

Fernando Valderrábano, MD 1942 - 2001

Fernando Valderrábano died of cancer on September 6, 2001, at the age of 59. He graduated in medicine from the University Complutense of Madrid in 1965 and trained in nephrology at the Hospital Puerta de Hierro in Madrid. In 1969 he moved to the Hospital Gregório Merañon in Madrid. Eventually he became director of nephrology services, which he had founded, and full professor of medicine/nephrology at the University Complutense of Madrid. Fernando Valderrábano was a member of many respected national and international professional societies. He was president of the Spanish Society of Nephrology, a council member of the European Renal Association-European Dialysis Transplant Association (ERA-EDTA) from 1988 to 1991, member (1991-1994) and chairman (1994-1997) of the ERA-EDTA registry, and president of the ERA-EDTA Congress 1999 in Madrid. He also was a member of the International Society of Nephrology's Commission on Global Advancement of Nephrology. Fernando Valderrábano received many awards, including honorary membership in the Societies of Nephrology of Portugal (1989), Chile (1990), Argentina (1991), Cuba (1992), Uruguay (1993), Spain (1993), Columbia (1994), Bulgaria (1995), and Venezuela (1996). He received the Golden Medal of the Argentinian Society of Nephrology, the International Distinguished Medal of the National Kidney Foundation, and the Merit Medal of the Spanish Air Force Hospital. He also received the award of the Spanish Society of Nephrology for the best paper published in the journal “Nefrologia” (1991) and the award of the Portuguese Society of Nephrology for the best paper published in “Revista Portuguesa de Nefrologia e Hipertensão” (1995). Fernando Valderrábano was a subject editor for Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation and also the Journal of Nephrology. He served for many years as a reviewer for the American Journal of Kidney Diseases and also was a member of the AJKD editorial board from 1994 to 1999. Dr Valderrábano published more than 300 articles in national and international medical journals. He was editor of eight books in nephrology and wrote 28 chapters in different books and textbooks. His main scientific activities were dedicated to the fields of renal anemia and the quality of life of patients with chronic renal failure. Before he died, Dr Valderrábano completed an in-depth review on “Quality of Life in End-Stage Renal Disease Patients,” which appeared in the September 2001 issue of AJKD. Many of his outstanding professional activities were dedicated to Latin America. We have lost an oustanding nephrologist, an engaging personality, and a great friend that we will never forget. We will miss Fernando Valderrábano.