Issue Of Space Debris Research Articles

Mechanisms for Addressing Space Debris from the Perspective of International Law

This paper explores the various mechanisms available for addressing the issue of space debris through the lens of international law. As human activities in space continue to increase, so does the accumulation of space debris, posing significant risks to satellites, spacecraft, and overall space operations. International law plays a crucial role in governing space activities and managing the growing problem of space debris. This paper examines the legal frameworks and mechanisms established at the international level to mitigate, prevent, and manage space debris. It analyzes treaties, agreements, guidelines, and principles relevant to space debris mitigation and explores the roles of different actors, including space agencies, governments, and international organizations, in implementing these mechanisms. The paper also discusses challenges and gaps in current legal frameworks and suggests potential avenues for enhancing international cooperation and coordination in addressing the issue of space debris. Through this examination, the paper aims to contribute to the understanding of the intersection between international law and space debris management and to inform future policy and decision-making in this critical area.

Telecommunications and Space Debris: Adaptive Regulation Beyond Earth

The existing policy frameworks surrounding the launch of man-made objects and expeditions into space are largely unequipped to deal with the long-term consequences of debris accumulation beyond the Earth's atmosphere. This has serious implications for all telecommunications satellites. As space-faring actors (who are increasingly from the private sector, in addition to government-affiliated) become more involved with these activities, fragmentation from a variety of sources (colloquially grouped as space debris) will only continue to proliferate before outright impeding the ability of humans to conduct operations in space altogether. This paper proposes, as a solution, the implementation of adaptive governance structures with regards to the issue of space debris. This solution takes place in the form of collaborative/flexible endeavors between the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), private sector spaceflight corporations, and governmental space agencies to mitigate space debris pileup. Through the usage of new technologies to spearhead space debris cleanup, non-partisan economic incentives, and clarification on acceptable environmental conditions for satellite launches, an adaptive governance model for handling space debris is key to making space safe for communication and research.

Out of sight, out of mind? The proliferation of space debris and international law

AbstractThe quantity of man-made space objects, ranging from abandoned launch vehicle stages to fragmentation debris, is remarkable. At the time, the drafters of the Outer Space Treaty did not (and perhaps could not) anticipate how great the problem of debris in outer space would one day become. As a result, they only drafted general provisions for the protection of the space environment which are generally deemed insufficient. This article aims to demonstrate that both general rules of international law and the UNCOPUOS Debris Mitigation Guidelines come to the rescue in addressing the space debris issue as they complement and complete the general obligations contained in the Outer Space Treaty. Particular attention is paid to anti-satellite weapon tests, which have catastrophic consequences in terms of creating debris but nonetheless continue to be carried out. Finally, it ascertains whether an obligation on states to actively remove their space debris exists.

우주잔해 문제에 대한 국제우주법 적용가능성 연구 -우주잔해 문제의 환경문제와 안보문제화-

1967년 우주조약이 체결된 이후 약 50여년이 지났다. 일론머스크의 스페이스엑스가 최초의 민간 우주선인 크루드래곤을 발사했다. 우주공간은 이제 국가들만의 공간이 아니라 다양한 우주활동 행위자들이 존재하는 복합적인 공간이다. 이러한 우주공간에 다자간 합의에 따라서 만들어진 질서가 없다면 문제는 더욱 복잡해질 것이다. 우주공간의 다양한 문제 중 아직 질서가 명확히 세워지지 않은 문제는 바로 우주잔해(Space Debris)다. 우주잔해 문제는 우주공간을 더 이상 이용하지 못하여 문명 후퇴를 경고한 캐슬러신드롬, 우주잔해의 연속충돌을 의미하는 캐스케이드 효과에 따라 지속가능한(long-term sustainability) 우주공간 사용 불가의 위협이 현실화 되고 있다. 우주잔해가 실제로 존재하고 피해도 명확한 상황이다. 그러나 아직 우주잔해에 대한 국제우주법 체계가 제대로 마련되어있지 않다. 우주잔해는 명백히 유해성이 있는 우주환경 문제와 우주안보문제이다. 본 고는 우주잔해 문제를 우주공간에 유해한 환경문제와 안보문제로 다루어보고자 한다. 이를 위해 먼저 기존의 국제우주법으로 우주잔해를 분석 및 검토한다. 새로운 행위자가 등장하고 우주물체가 기하급수적으로 늘어나는 이 상황에서 국제우주법이 완전히 적용되기에는 한계가 있다. 그러나 본고는 이러한 한계를 넘어서기 위해 우주잔해 문제를 기존국제우주법의 영역인 우주공간에 대한 환경적 문제와 안보적 문제로 바꾸어 분석해보고자 한다. 이를 위해 먼저 우주잔해를 정의하고 정의된 우주잔해를 기존의 국제우주법으로 다룰 수 있는지 검토해본다. 이후 검토된 내용을 바탕으로, 이미 명문화된 우주공간에서의 환경적 문제와 안보적 문제를 우주잔해 문제에 적용시켜 검토하여 기존의 국제우주법으로 우주잔해 문제를 다룰 수 있다는 것을 보여준다. 마지막으로 환경문제화되고 안보문제화된 우주잔해 문제를 해결을 위한 ‘초국가적 공공우주거버넌스(Global Public Space Governance)’의 법적근거로서 국제우주법을 제시한다.

Toward the Sustainability of Outer Space: Addressing the Issue of Space Debris

The legacy of >50 years of human space faring has brought impressive technical and scientific achievements; however, it has also led to the growing population of space debris. These objects serve n...

LEO Object’s Light-Curve Acquisition System and Their Inversion for Attitude Reconstruction

In recent years, the increase in space activities has brought the space debris issue to the top of the list of all space agencies. The fact of there being uncontrolled objects is a problem both for the operational satellites in orbit (avoiding collisions) and for the safety of people on the ground (re-entry objects). Optical systems provide valuable assistance in identifying and monitoring such objects. The Sapienza Space System and Space Surveillance (S5Lab) has been working in this field for years, being able to take advantage of a network of telescopes spread over different continents. This article is focused on the re-entry phase of the object; indeed, the knowledge of the state of the object, in terms of position, velocity, and attitude during the descent, is crucial in order to predict as accurately as possible the impact point on the ground. A procedure to retrieve the light curves of orbiting objects by means of optical data will be shown and a method to obtain the attitude determination from their inversion based on a stochastic optimization (genetic algorithm) will be proposed.

Space sustainability in Martian orbits — First insights in a technical and regulatory analysis

Hazards from the outer space environment either natural (space weather and asteroids) or artificial (space debris and the growing number of satellites launched to orbit) pose a rising risk to space flight activities. The awareness for space sustainability and space safety has seen a continuous increase in recent years and does not stop at the Earth's sphere of influence. The first spacefaring nations start thinking about sustainability in cislunar space and the Martian environment. This work deals with the issue of space debris in Martian orbits in the light of planetary protection. A Mars Sustainability Framework has been developed. This includes a study on the orbital and regulatory environment of Mars, long-term propagation of orbits of artificial objects and the two natural moons, and the analysis of objects evolution and first approaches for collision probability computation. With this work, the issue of space debris beyond Earth orbit is analysed at an early stage.

Orbital Debris Threat for Space Sustainability and Way Forward (Review Article)

Over the past 60 years, satellite technology has demonstrated its usefulness successfully. However, this usefulness is at stake from a future point of view, due to the well-admitted orbital/space debris threat. This article thoroughly reviews all aspects of space debris issue including causes, amount and sizes of orbital debris, potential threats, counter-strategies with their latest status and related legal issues to highlight the criticality and urgency of the problem. This review elaborates the fact that despite all the worries and threats, the efforts to confront this challenge are considerably insufficient until today. This bitter reality demands for at-least curtailing the number of future launches to ensure the long-term sustainability of space, until the improvement in debris situation. However, contradictory to this necessity, large satellite constellations have been proposed that can drastically increase the existing orbital population in coming years. This approach will certainly not help in improving the space environment in the future; instead, it can worsen the space environment situation as recent studies shows. Also, space resources (i.e. orbital slots and frequencies) are limited to accommodate many more satellite projects from commercial and government organization in the future. So, there is a serious question of how the space industry can move forward to maintain a balance in controlling the future number of the satellite while accommodating many commercial or government space entities. This article also identifies two optimized approaches as a way forward for future satellite projects that can also enhance the effectiveness of space technology in the future.

The Status of the Operational Debris Mitigation Systems Regulatory Policy: Current Issues and Future Perspectives

A strong and dynamic technological progress in the space sector is shaping a new set of rules, apting primarily to the preservation of the space environment and the savage exploitation of its resources. When focusing on what can be considered the greatest challenge of this still young century, the space debris issue, one cannot refrain from questioning whether such fast-moving technical and technological progress has a solid match in the current legal, policy and political framework: do they go hand in hand, or is the second structurally incapable of keeping up with the rapidly evolving nature of the first? The paper will involve a deep analysis and legal and policy issues for future operational debris mitigation systems, essential step to draft a set of specific rules, agreed at national and international level, for a governance and regulation framework. What is lacked is a soft law instrument, internationally agreed, that can enforce such decisions on States’ behalf, for the sake of the sustainability and ongoing security of the space environment. These aspects are very sensitive and they involve constraints in relation to the national sovereignty and to the identification of “commercial” actors that could invest and operate in these domains. The maritime law can offer some frame of reference to solve this issue. Specifically, the international law of salvage in high seas, as outlined in the International Convention on Salvage, IMO 1989, may establish a similar regime, in space, for abandoned spacecraft with. In this regard, the pivotal role of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in setting a regulation for the Active Debris Removal missions (ADR), in the years to come, should not be underplayed. Since this agency is in charge of promoting and coordinating the definition of technical standards, as well as of assigning satellite orbits, it might be able to establish itself as the referral organization for the issuing of finally binding space debris mitigation rules. It is crucial to have an institution capable of maintaining the balance (both technical and political) between multiple stakeholders, and security and environmental constraints. So much of the future of space activities will depend on how those rules will succeed in limiting the growing amount of floating debris in space.

Spacecraft design optimisation for demise and survivability

Among the mitigation measures introduced to cope with the space debris issue there is the de-orbiting of decommissioned satellites. Guidelines for re-entering objects call for a ground casualty risk no higher than 10−4. To comply with this requirement, satellites can be designed through a design-for-demise philosophy. Still, a spacecraft designed to demise through the atmosphere has to survive the debris-populated space environment for many years. The demisability and the survivability of a satellite can both be influenced by a set of common design choices such as the material selection, the geometry definition, and the position of the components inside the spacecraft. Within this context, two models have been developed to analyse the demise and the survivability of satellites. Given the competing nature of the demisability and the survivability requirements, a multi-objective optimisation framework was developed, with the aim to identify trade-off solutions for the preliminary design of satellites. As the problem is nonlinear and involves the combination of continuous and discrete variables, classical derivative based approaches are unsuited and a genetic algorithm was selected instead. The genetic algorithm uses the developed demisability and survivability criteria as the fitness functions of the multi-objective algorithm. The paper presents a test case, which considers the preliminary optimisation of tanks in terms of material, geometry, location, and number of tanks for a representative Earth observation mission. The configuration of the external structure of the spacecraft is fixed. Tanks were selected because they are sensitive to both design requirements: they represent critical components in the demise process and impact damage can cause the loss of the mission because of leaking and ruptures. The results present the possible trade off solutions, constituting the Pareto front obtained from the multi-objective optimisation.

Assessing component impairing at mission level

Whilst the amount of debris around the Earth steadily increases, the danger of collisions between debris and operating man-made space systems becomes a major issue. Whilst on the one hand fine physical simulation allows predicting accurately failure occurrences or manoeuvre consequences, and on the other hand fine behavioural models allow apprehending the services expected from a given system as an organisation of functions performed by various agents, it is difficult to have both approaches work together. This paper proposes a bridge between both approaches by developing a model describing in a unified way dependencies, redundancies, and interactions between physical components concurring to ensure elementary functions of a system, and shows how this approach was applied to the assessment of remedial measures to space debris issues for space assets.

Adaptation to Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines and Space Law

ABSTRACTSpace exploration is a mechanism whereby, with the use of astronomy and space technology, humans are able to explore outer space and the universe at large. In this article, the authors address space debris issues with a discussion of future space law issues along with a brief elaboration of how the adaptation took place for space debris mitigation guidelines. The history of space law formulated during the United Nations’ General Assembly is justified, along with the resolutions that took place throughout recent years. The authors also elaborate on the importance of theoretical modeling and how it could be adopted into practice utilizing the established debris mitigation guidelines. Legal and political constraints are also highlighted, along with where the future focus on legal factors should be when considering space debris mitigation.

Geostationary secular dynamics revisited: application to high area-to-mass ratio objects

The long-term dynamics of the geostationary Earth orbits (GEO) is revisited through the application of canonical perturbation theory. We consider a Hamiltonian model accounting for all major perturbations: geopotential at order and degree two, lunisolar perturbations with a realistic model for the Sun and Moon orbits, and solar radiation pressure. The long-term dynamics of the GEO region has been studied both numerically and analytically, in view of the relevance of such studies to the issue of space debris or to the disposal of GEO satellites. Past studies focused on the orbital evolution of objects around a nominal solution, hereafter called the forced equilibrium solution, which shows a particularly strong dependence on the area-to-mass ratio. Here, we i) give theoretical estimates for the long-term behavior of such orbits, and ii) we examine the nature of the forced equilibrium itself. In the lowest approximation, the forced equilibrium implies motion with a constant non-zero average `forced eccentricity', as well as a constant non-zero average inclination, otherwise known in satellite dynamics as the inclination of the invariant `Laplace plane'. Using a higher order normal form, we demonstrate that this equilibrium actually represents not a point in phase space, but a trajectory taking place on a lower-dimensional torus. We give analytical expressions for this special trajectory, and we compare our results to those found by numerical orbit propagation. We finally discuss the use of proper elements, i.e., approximate integrals of motion for the GEO orbits.

Interactions of the space debris environment with mega constellations—Using the example of the OneWeb constellation

Recently, several announcements have been published to deploy satellite constellations into Low Earth Orbit (LEO) containing several hundred to thousands of rather small sized objects. The purpose of these constellations is to provide a worldwide internet coverage, even to the remotest areas. Examples of these mega-constellations are one from SpaceX, which is announced to comprise of about 4000 satellites, the Norwegian STEAM network, which is told to contain 4257 satellites, and the OneWeb constellation, which forms one of the smaller constellations with 720 satellites. As example constellation, OneWeb has been chosen. From all announced constellation, OneWeb by far delivered most information, both in regards to constellation design and their plans to encounter space debris issues, which is the reason why it has been chosen for these analyses.In this paper, at first an overview of the planned OneWeb constellation setup is given. From this description, a mission life-cycle is deduced, splitting the complete orbital lifetime of the satellites into four phases. Following, using ESA-MASTER, for each of the mission phases the flux on both single constellations satellites and the complete constellation are performed and the collision probabilities are derived. The focus in this analysis is set on catastrophic collisions. This analysis is then varied parametrically for different operational altitudes of the constellation as well as different lifetimes with different assumptions for the success of post mission disposal (PMD). Following the to-be-expected mean number of collision avoidance manoeuvres during all active mission phases is performed using ARES from ESA's DRAMA tool suite. The same variations as during the flux analysis are considered. Lastly the characteristics of hypothetical OneWeb satellite fragmentation clouds, calculated using the NASA Breakup model, are described and the impact of collision clouds from OneWeb satellites on the constellation itself is analysed.

Conceptualizing an economically, legally, and politically viable active debris removal option

It has become increasingly clear in recent years that the issue of space debris, particularly in low-Earth orbit, can no longer be ignored or simply mitigated. Orbital debris currently threatens safe space flight for both satellites and humans aboard the International Space Station. Additionally, orbital debris might impact Earth upon re-entry, endangering human lives and damaging the environment with toxic materials. In summary, orbital debris seriously jeopardizes the future not only of human presence in space, but also of human safety on Earth. While international efforts to mitigate the current situation and limit the creation of new debris are useful, recent studies predicting debris evolution have indicated that these will not be enough to ensure humanity׳s access to and use of the near-Earth environment in the long-term. Rather, active debris removal (ADR) must be pursued if we are to continue benefiting from and conducting space activities. While the concept of ADR is not new, it has not yet been implemented. This is not just because of the technical feasibility of such a scheme, but also because of the host of economic, legal/regulatory, and political issues associated with debris remediation. The costs of ADR are not insignificant and, in today׳s restrictive fiscal climate, are unlikely/to be covered by any single actor. Similarly, ADR concepts bring up many unresolved questions about liability, the protection of proprietary information, safety, and standards. In addition, because of the dual use nature of ADR technologies, any venture will necessarily require political considerations. Despite the many unanswered questions surrounding ADR, it is an endeavor worth pursuing if we are to continue relying on space activities for a variety of critical daily needs and services. Moreover, we cannot ignore the environmental implications that an unsustainable use of space will imply for life on Earth in the long run. This paper aims to explore some of these challenges and propose an economically, politically, and legally viable ADR option. Much like waste management on Earth, cleaning up space junk will likely lie somewhere between a public good and a private sector service. An international, cooperative, public-private partnership concept can address many of these issues and be economically sustainable, while also driving the creation of a proper set of regulations, standards and best practices.

Space debris and the need for space traffic control

This report summarises the presentations which took place at the ‘Space Traffic Control – Is the Space Debris Problem Solvable?’ conference hosted by the Royal Aeronautical Society on the 2nd July 2013. The conference sought to promote discussion over methods to deal with the issue of space debris in particular and speakers included representatives from the European Space Agency, the United Kingdom Space Agency, practitioners and academia. Themes which emerged during the conference included the urgency of the problem of space debris, the need for short-term and long-term solutions, the necessity for the development and implementation of space debris remediation technologies to complement existing mitigation efforts and, last but not least, the wider applications of space traffic control. Regarding the sub-title of the conference, ‘is the space debris problem solvable?’, it would appear from the presentations that while there is the potential for future management of the issue through debris remediation and harmonised mitigation efforts, no comprehensive solutions exist at the time of writing.

The Current International Legal Setting for the Protection of the Outer Space Environment: The Precautionary Principle Avant La Lettre

Over the last decades, space‐based technologies have significantly contributed to the socio‐economic advancement of humankind. While reliance on outer space has increased, the security of the space assets enabling the benefits has significantly decreased due to a laissez‐faire approach in the exploitation and exploration of outer space and the subsequent proliferation of space debris. The problematic issue of space debris is getting to the point where it should be treated with precaution. The precautionary principle, broadly applied in the protection of the terrestrial environment, may also have the potential to enhance the regime for environmental protection of outer space. This article analyzes the current legal regime, at international and European levels, for the protection of the near‐Earth outer space environment, focusing on the issue of space debris. The article examines the rationale behind an avant la lettre application of the precautionary principle to the protection of the outer space environment.

Space debris: Conjunction opportunities and opportunities for international cooperation

Space debris comprises all non-functional human-made objects in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere. Potentially hazardous orbital debris is proliferating. If current trends continue, orbital debris will become a significant factor in constraining space activity. Space, however, is one of the most strategically important theatres of the 21st century. It is thus imperative, given humanity’s reliance on space, that the issue of space debris be addressed. This paper provides an overview of the existing space debris environment, sources of debris and international efforts to monitor it. It analyses space debris mitigation guidelines and the proposed International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities. It considers an international treaty to govern space debris as well as the establishment of an international review board to assist in regulating and reducing the amount of debris. It also assesses the challenges of remediation and other policy actions to increase international cooperation to preserve the space environment.

Examining the effects of anti-space weaponization arguments in the media: Some experimental findings from Canada

This study examines how political activists are framing the space weaponization debate in Canada and whether their arguments can influence public attitudes and perceptions about the issue. Eighty university students from two undergraduate courses were recruited as participants in a quasi-experiment. One class (n = 38) was exposed to the documentary Masters of Space, an episode of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's program The Nature of Things, and another class (n = 42) served as the control group. Pre-test and post-test questionnaires were used to measure the effects of viewing anti-weaponization arguments in the media, while also controlling for the influence of prior beliefs and background characteristics of participants. Results suggest that visually depicting the use of satellite technology in society can convince viewers that satellites are important to their way of life, but not necessarily to the defense of North America. Framing missile defense as a ‘space weapon in disguise’ also seemed to raise opposition to Canada's participation in continental missile defense. The findings, meanwhile, indicate that viewers respond strongly to the issue of space debris and that mobilizing support for joint military space projects may best be achieved by emphasizing the usefulness of these projects for locating and tracking such debris. In the end, media exposure seemed to help legitimize anti-weaponization arguments based more on rational self-interests than on idealistic beliefs. These findings can have implications for the way space policies are communicated to the public.

G191016 一段式ガス銃の回転発射機構の検討及び基礎実験([G191]宇宙工学部門,一般セッション)

The high-speed collision experiment is conducted,by the issue of space debris collision.However,the experiment in consideration of the influence of the rotation projectile is not carried out very much.The purpose of this study is to develop the single-stage gas gun which can fire a rotation projectile at low velocity.Improve a launching device and measure a turn and the velocity of the projectile with a high-speed video camera.The number of revolutions of the motor which turned a projectile used 14000rpm.The experimental conditions were being press gas,the length of the launch tube and pressure of vacuum chamber,raised the pressure of the pressure vessel,and it was found to be effective for projectilerotary maintenance to make an acceleration pipe a vacuum.The maximum number of turns of a projectile comprising this rotary launching device is 10000rpm.