Space Allowance Research Articles

Effects of space allowance and simulated sea transport motion on behavioural and physiological responses of sheep

Transporting sheep by sea exposes them to some prolonged floor motions, and their responses may depend on their space allowance. We simulated sea motion in a crate with a moveable and programmable floor, to measure behaviour and physiological responses. Nine sheep were exposed in groups of 3 for 1 h periods to Regular motion (8° roll of the floor every 15 s), Irregular motion (30 randomly selected amplitudes and duration of floor roll, with the same means as Regular), and No floor motion, at High (0.35m2/head), Medium (0.30 m2/head), and Low (0.26 m2/head) space allowances, with Low representing the Australian shipping standard. Lying time (P < 0.001) and heart rate (P = 0.05) were reduced during regular motion, but aggression increased during irregular motion (P < 0.001), particularly at the end of the treatment. Both regular and irregular motion decreased rumination (P = 0.003) compared with control. Pushing (P = 0.03) and stepping (P < 0.001) were more frequent in the Low than Medium or High space allowance treatments, but only when the sheep experienced Regular motion, and particularly at the start of treatment (P = 0.03, P < 0.001) respectively. Low space allowance decreased lying time (P = 0.001) and variability in cardiac interbeat intervals (P < 0.001), increased aggression (P = 0.005) and the time sheep had their head facing downwards resting on the bars of the cage (P = 0.02), indicating stress. Therefore, both regular and irregular ship-like motion at a low space allowance led to responses that suggested stress; giving more space than the current Australian standards may increase the welfare of sheep transported by sea.

Dairy goats use outdoor runs of high quality more regardless of the quality of indoor housing

For dairy goats in loose housing, access to an outdoor run has potential welfare benefits as it provides additional space, enables spatial separation and may offer items representing behavioural enrichment for the goats (e.g. brush, climbing possibilities). However, these benefits will only apply if the outdoor run is actually used, and the use may depend on the attractiveness of the outdoor run and the (un)attractiveness of the indoor housing. The aim of the study was therefore to examine the use of the outdoor run and the activity behaviour of goats in loose housing systems in closed buildings in relation to the quality of both the outdoor run and the indoor housing. On 13 farms, this quality was assessed with an outdoor and an indoor index. A high index indicated high quality in terms of the number of resources provided (outdoor index: e.g. space allowance, accessibility of the outdoor run, wind shelter, brushes, hayracks; indoor index: e.g. space allowance, lying niches, separate feeding place, brush). During the winter feeding period, 3–7 days per farm with comparable weather conditions were selected for analysis. The average daily time-weighted proportion of the herd in the outdoor run was assessed by video data. The activity behaviour of 15 focal goats per farm was measured using 3D acceleration loggers. The age of the focal goats was used as a proxy for social rank. Linear mixed-effects models with a stepwise backward selection approach were used for statistical analysis. Direct observations showed that the goats used all enrichment items provided in the outdoor run, and most of the individuals were seen in the outdoor run at least once. With increasing outdoor index the average daily time-weighted proportion of the herd in the outdoor run increased (p = 0.023). Additionally, an increasing outdoor index was associated with a decreasing total daily activity in lower ranking goats and an increasing total daily activity in higher ranking goats (p = 0.028). The indoor index had no influence on the average daily time-weighted proportion of the herd in the outdoor run, but the number of lying bouts per day decreased with increasing indoor index (p < 0.02) and with increasing rank status (p < 0.001). We conclude that an outdoor run influences the activity of goats and its use can be promoted by increasing the number and types of resources provided there, regardless of the quality of the indoor housing. Furthermore, indoor housing systems of high quality are beneficial for lying behaviour, as seen in the reduced number of lying bouts.

A cross-sectional study of the welfare of calves raised in smallholder dairy farms in Meru, Kenya, 2017.

Aim:This study was aimed at describing calf comfort and determining the individual and pen level factors that affect comfort status (in particular, calf leg hygiene scores) of smallholder dairy farms in Meru County, Kenya.Materials and Methods:A cross-sectional study was carried out on 52 calves that were up to 1 year old in 38 dairy farms (mean±standard deviation: Herd size=1.71±0.7 milking cows and milk production=6.7±3.1 L/day) in Meru, Kenya, in 2017, with the intention to describe their comfort and determine the factors associated with leg hygiene as a critical parameter for calf comfort assessment. Calves’ biodata, health status, and leg hygiene were assessed, along with pen characteristics such as area, hygiene, and knee impact and knee wetness scores, while a questionnaire was administered to the farmers to gather information regarding calf housing management practices in the farm.Results:The calves had a mean body weight of 85.2±32.8 kg and average daily weight gain of 0.50±0.45 kg per day. 71% of calves had a good body condition score (≥2.5), and the mean space allowance per calf was 2.52±1.56 m2. Approximately 75% of the calves (39/52) were kept in pens, and the rest were reared outdoors. For 39 calves kept indoors, 26% (10/39) of them had wooden or concrete floors while 74% (29/39) had dirt floors. Nearly two-thirds (62%) of indoor calves (26/39) were reared in pens with bedding, and 23% (9/39) and 33% (13/39) of the calves reared indoors were kept in pens displaying a failed knee impact test and failed knee wetness test. Indoor housed calves had an increased probability of having dirty calf legs (cleanliness score of >2.5) by 8.6 times (p=0.031), compared to outdoor-housed calves. In the final multivariable logistic regression model of 39 calves in pens, concrete or wood floors (odds ratio [OR]=7.9, p=0.047), poor body condition (OR=17.1, p=0.020) and use of bedding (OR=12.5, p=0.046) appeared to be positively correlated with dirtiness of calf legs, compared to dirt floors, good body condition, and no bedding, respectively.Conclusion:Overall, some calf comfort aspects were covered for the majority of calves examined, but 69% of the pens were categorized as dirty, especially those with wooden or concrete floors and poor bedding management. Smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya should be trained on calf housing management to improve calf comfort and productivity.

Minimal floor space allowance for gestating sows kept in pens with electronic sow feeders on fully slatted floors.

A study was conducted to evaluate the minimal floor space allowance for gestating sows group-housed in pens with electronic sow feeders (ESF). Five floor space allowances were each tested in 4 pens: 1.5 m2, 1.7 m2, 1.9 m2, 2.1 m2 per sow, and 1.5 m2 per sow with more space (2.1 m2 per sow) during the first week of mixing (2.1/1.5 m2). The floor space allowances were achieved by adjusting pen size (from 80 to 88 m2) and group size (42, 46, and 51 sows per pen). Pregnant sows (n = 928, Large White × Landrace, parity = 1 to 9) were moved to ESF pens at about 5 wk of gestation and remained in their pens until about day 109 of gestation. Sows farrowed in individual stalls and weaned their litters at about 19 d after farrowing. Sows that were rebred within 1 wk after weaning were considered to have completed the study. Performance, skin lesions, and incidence of lameness in ESF pens were monitored for all sows. Data were analyzed using the Frequency, Glimmix, and Mixed procedures of the SAS software. Floor space allowance did not affect (P = 0.18 or greater) body weight, backfat depth, or condition score in ESF pens or during the lactation period. No differences (P = 0.23 or greater) were detected in farrowing rates (95, 92, 94, 94, and 95% for 1.5, 1.7, 1.9, 2.1, and 1.5/2.1 m2, respectively), completion rates (83, 79, 80, 86, and 86%), live litter size farrowed (12.5, 12.7, 12.2, 12.3, and 12.5 pigs per litter, SE = 0.24), litter size weaned (10.4, 10.5, 10.2, 10.2, and 10.6 pigs per litter, SE = 0.22), litter weight farrowed, litter weight weaned, or wean-to-estrus interval among treatment groups. Skin lesion scores for the body and for the vulva 2 d after mixing into ESF pens and when moved from ESF pens to farrowing quarters were similar across treatment groups (P = 0.54 or greater). Incidence of lameness 2 d after mixing was higher (χ2 = 21.1, df = 4; P = 0.01) for sows allowed 2.1/1.5 m2 (9.5%) and 2.1 m2 (4.2%) than sows allowed 1.9 m2 (1.8%), 1.7 m2 (2.9%), and 1.5 m2 (1.5%), which may be associated with fighting to establish dominance hierarchy during mixing in pens with larger open areas. No difference was observed in incidence of lameness when moved from ESF pens to farrowing quarters among treatment groups. These results suggest that the minimal floor space allowance of 1.5 m2 appears to be acceptable for maintaining reproductive performance and welfare of gestating sows group-housed under conditions of the current study.

Temperament effects on performance and adaptability of Nellore young bulls to the feedlot environment

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of temperament on cattle performance and adaptability to the feedlot environment, when kept under three space allowances (6, 12 and 24 m2/animal). Temperament of 1,350 Nellore young bulls (pure and crossbred) were assessed by the flight speed (FS) test on days 0 (FS0), 35 (FS35) and 87 (FSfin) in the feedlot, and the differences between FSfin and FS0 (ΔFS) were calculated. Three classes of flight speed were defined (calm, intermediate and reactive) for FS0 (FSC0) and FSfin (FSCfin). Performance was assessed by recording body weights on days 0, 35 and 87 (BW0, BW35 and BWfin, respectively), average daily gains between days 0 and 35, and 0 and 87 (ADG0-35 and ADG0-fin, respectively), and hot carcass weight (HCW). Adrenal glands of a subset of 270 animals were collected to measure their weight (WEIGHT), and cortical (COA) and medullary (MEA) areas. Spearman's coefficients of correlation were estimated to assess the relationships between FS test results over time. General linear mixed model with Proc MIXED of SAS was used in all other analyses, and a repeated measures modelling was used for FS, except for ΔFS. For FS analysis the model included the fixed effects of space allowance, days in feedlot and 2-way interaction. For ΔFS analysis only space allowance was included. Growth performance and adrenal gland variables were analyzed considering the fixed effects of space allowance, flight speed classes (for FSC0 and FSCfin, separately) and 2-way interaction in the model. In all models, BW0 was fitted as a covariate. Means comparisons between FS classes were corrected by Tukey adjustment. Significant and positive correlations were found between all FS test values, which decreased over time in all feedlot space allowances (p < 0.01). Calm animals showed higher (p < 0.05) ADG0-35, BW35 and BWfin means than intermediate and reactive ones, and also produced heavier carcasses at the end of the finishing period (p < 0.05). A significant effect of the interaction between FSCfin and space allowance was found for ADG0-fin, showing that only when kept at 12m2 of space allowance, reactive animals had lower (p < 0.05) growth performance than calm ones. Reactive cattle (FSC0) had greater COA and heavier WEIGHT (p = 0.01, for both) than calm and intermediate ones. Based on our results, it can be concluded that calm animals show better performance in the feedlot, regardless of the space provided to them in the pen, given their greater adaptability to feedlot conditions.

Shelter housing for cats: Practical aspects of design and construction, and adaptation of existing accommodation.

This review, the second in a two-part series, provides an overview of some of the essential requirements for housing shelter cats, either singly or in groups. Specific practical aspects of housing, including design, space allowances, cage furnishings and suitable construction materials, are discussed, and suggestions made for upgrading existing housing where extensive rebuilding is not feasible or realistic. Evidence base: There is a relatively small body of empirical evidence to inform shelter design recommendations. The recommendations in this article are based on a careful review of the available evidence, some of which has come from allied fields such as the care of experimental animals. Where evidence is not yet available, recommendations have been based on field experience and collective expert opinion.

Effects of wet/dry feeder and pen stocking density on grow-finish pig performance.

Three thousand one hundred and eighty-two terminal cross pigs (barrows and gilts) PIC line 359 sires × 1,050 dams were used from three consecutive grow-finish groups (initial BW of 21.51 ± 0.42 kg, 31.61 ± 1.18 kg, 29.41 ± 0.28 kg for replicates 1–3). Pigs were randomly assigned to each pen at the start of the trial and the research period continued for 106, 94, and 100 d for the first, second, and third replicates, respectively. The experimental treatments were designed as a two by three factorial (pen space of 0.65 or 0.78 m2/pig with 10, 13, or 16 pigs per feeder space), each pen had an equal number of barrows and gilts with 20, 26, and 32 pigs per pen for the 10, 13, and 16 pigs per feeder space pens. Each pen was equipped with one double-sided wet/dry feeder, 37.5 cm wide, with one nipple drinker. All pigs had ad libitum access to feed and water supply during the trial period. Pigs for all the three replicates were fed with the same series of diets. Pigs were weighed by pen at the start of trial and at the end of the trial to calculate ADG. Feed was removed from the feeders and weighed to determine ADFI and G:F. To express floor space allowance, the k value was estimated by the equation: . No interactions (P > 0.05) of floor space allowance with pigs per feeder were observed. Pigs with less floor space allowance had reduced BW (128.8 vs. 129.5 kg, P = 0.026), ADG (1.00 vs. 1.02 kg/d, P = 0.002), and ADFI (2.52 vs. 2.61 kg/d, P < 0.001). However, G:F was improved (0.402 vs. 0.397, P = 0.039) with less floor space allowance per pig. Increased pigs per feeder space reduced final BW (129.7, 129.4, 128.4 kg, linear; P = 0.001). However, ADG had a quadratic relationship (P = 0.005) with pigs per feeder space with means of 1.03, 1.01, and 1.01 kg/d for 10, 13, and 16 pigs per feeder space. Overall, ADFI had a quadratic relationship (P < 0.0001) with number of pigs per feeder space with means of 2.62, 2.52, and 2.55 kg/d for 10, 13, and 16 pigs per feeder space. Gain efficiency had a quadratic relationship (P = 0.005) with number of pigs per feeder space with means of 0.395, 0.404, and 0.400 for 10, 13, and 16 pigs per feeder space. In conclusion, a floor space allowance of 0.65 m2/pig in the grow-finish period reduced ADFI and ADG compared with 0.78 m2/pig. Overall, with the type of wet/dry feeder used in this study, 10 pigs per feeder had the greatest ADG and ADFI, compared with 13 or 16 pigs per feeder space. However, G:F improved as the number of pigs per feeder space increased.

Cage size affects comfort, safety and the experienced security of working dogs in cars

Working dogs often spend a large amount of their time in cars. It has been hypothesized that a larger compartment in the car would be more comfortable for the dog, but that a smaller space could be safer, especially while driving. This presents a potential conflict. In this study, working dogs of the breeds German Shepherd (N = 8) and Springer Spaniel (N = 8) from the Swedish Police and Customs respectively, were each tested in four different car cage sizes; two cages were the minimum size allowed according to Swedish regulations (one of fixed size and one adapted to the size of the dog) and for comparison we tested one larger (fixed sized) and one smaller (adapted sized) cage. These were tested under two different driving phases; normal driving (including turns and changes in speed) and slow cruising (without turning forces and of an even speed). The study was conducted at a test track using an estate car, typical of that used by these organizations. Testing of each cage size involved 30 min in the car, excluding the habituation period. The dogs’ behaviour and heart rate activity was recorded. Statistical analyses used a mixed model and pairwise comparisons. We found a large effect of our two driving phases, for example heart rate was higher and behavioural stress indicators more frequent during normal driving, implying that this was a more demanding situation for dogs compared to the slow cruising. Regarding cage size effects, there were fewer overall movements and body position changes by dogs in the three smaller cages compared to the largest cage size. That this could be a sign of decreased comfort is supported by the finding that dogs could not turn around in these cages without curving their back upwards or lowering their rump in these cages. This could have negative physical effects, especially in German Shepherds which are predisposed to musculoskeletal disease. Furthermore, German Shepherd dogs showed more bracing postures, i.e. more attempts to maintain their balance, in the small fixed cage size. For these dogs this cage size was shorter than their own body length. However, this bracing did not result in them losing their balance any less often, illustrating the importance of space allowance for maintaining balance during transportation and implying that a smaller cage is not necessarily safer.

Effects of increasing space allowance by removing a pig or gate adjustment on finishing pig growth performance.

A total of 256 pigs (initially 55.9 ± 4.88 kg) were used in a 71-d study to determine the effects of increasing space allowance and pig removal on pig growth performance. Pens of pigs were blocked by body weight (BW) and allotted to 1 of 4 space allowance treatments, initially with 8 pigs per pen and 8 pens per treatment. First 2 treatments included pens with 0.91 m2 per pig or 0.63 m2 per pig for the entire study; two additional treatments initially provided 0.63 m2 per pig, but either a gate was adjusted on days 28, 45, and 62 or the heaviest pig in the pen was removed from the pen on days 28 and 45 to provide more space and keep pigs in accordance with their predicted minimum space requirement [(m2) = 0.0336 × (BW, kg)0.67]. From days 0 to 14 (56 to 69 kg), there was no effect of stocking density observed for average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain:feed (G:F). From days 14 to 28 (69 to 83 kg), pigs provided 0.91 m2 had increased (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F compared with those allowed 0.63 m2. Pigs provided 0.91 m2 were marginally heavier (P = 0.081) on day 28 and had greater ADFI (P = 0.025) during days 28 to 45 than those provided 0.63 m2 or those that had the heaviest pig removed. From days 45 to 62 (98 to 116 kg), pigs provided 0.91 m2 were heavier (P < 0.01) than all others, wheras pigs provided 0.63 m2 had reduced ADFI compared with other treatments. From days 62 to 71 (116 to 124 kg), pigs provided 0.91 m2 and those with space adjustment treatments had greater (P < 0.05) ADG and ADFI than those provided 0.63 m2. Overall (56 to 124 kg), pigs provided 0.91 m2 had increased (P = 0.001) ADG compared with those allowed 0.63 m2 with pigs provided space adjustments intermediate. In summary, pigs with 0.91 m2 grew faster and consumed more feed than pigs restricted in space. As pigs reached the critical k value, gate adjustments and pig removals affected growth similarly. As pigs grew to the predicted space requirement and were subsequently allowed more space, performance was greater than those provided 0.63 m2 but less than those allowed 0.91 m2. It appears that the industry accepted critical k value, 0.0336, may not be adequate for optimal pig performance across multiple BW ranges.

Influence of space availability and weather conditions on shelter use by beef cattle during winter

The objective of this experiment was to evaluate shelter use by beef cattle in relation to space allowance per individual and weather conditions. Nine groups of Angus cattle (n = 35 in total, 3–6/group) were kept on paddocks with a squared shelter (5 × 10 m) with an open long side. In a 3 × 3 crossover design, three experimental treatments were tested based on national recommendations: 1) 100% of the recommended m2/individual (4 m2 per adult), 2) 150% (6 m2 per adult) and 3) 200% (8 m2 per adult). The shelter area was fenced off according to treatment and the number and size of animals in each group. Shelter use was estimated from pictures taken every 15 min with infrared trail cameras placed in all shelters. When the available space per individual was 100% of the recommended space, the shelters were used less compared to when 150% and 200% of the recommended space was available (e.g. percentage of pictures where all animals were inside the shelter (%all_animals): P < 0.001). There was a significant effect of weather conditions on shelter use (e.g. %all_animals; chill factor index: P = 0.03, and precipitation: P = 0.006), i.e. the shelters were used more with decreasing chill factor index and with increased precipitation. In conclusion, beef cattle increased their use of the shelters when the space allowance per individual increased with 50% or 100% compared to the current, national recommendations; e.g. simultaneous use by a whole group doubled with increased space. Furthermore, cold and wet weather increased shelter use.

13 Effect of Floor Space Allowances on Growth Performance of Finishing Pigs Marketed at 138 Kilograms.

13 Effect of Floor Space Allowances on Growth Performance of Finishing Pigs Marketed at 138 Kilograms.

The effect of prepartum feeding and lying space on metabolic health and immune function

The determinants of metabolic and reproductive health disorders in the peripartum period and the degree to which feeding and lying space and management can influence health are only partially understood. The objective of this randomized controlled study was to determine whether providing noncompetitive feeding and lying access in the close-up dry period improves health and immune function. Forty-eight Holstein cows of all parities were randomly assigned to a treatment group of 6 to 10 cows in 1 pen with either 80% cows to stalls and 90 cm of feeding space per cow (understocked) or 120% stocking density and 45 cm of feeding space per cow (overstocked) for 3 wk before expected calving. All cows wore electronic data loggers to monitor daily standing and lying time. Video recordings representing d 7 to 9 after group formation were reviewed, and a competition index (C_Ind) was calculated for each cow by dividing the number of times a cow displaced another as an actor by its total number of actor and reactor displacements. Cows were categorized as high success (C_Ind ≥0.6), moderate success (0.4 ≤ C_Ind <0.6), or low success (C_Ind <0.4). Weekly blood samples measured nonesterified fatty acids, β-hydroxybutyrate, calcium, glucose, albumin, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, haptoglobin, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor-1 from 3 wk before to 5 wk after calving. Measures of innate immune function (neutrophil phagocytosis and oxidative burst) were assessed at -2, -1, 1, 2, 3, and 5 wk relative to calving. Liver biopsies were collected at wk 1 and 3. Cows in the understocked group spent significantly more time per day lying; the back-transformed least squares means and 95% confidence interval were 14.8 h (13.9-15.6) versus 12.8 h (12.0-13.7). Controlling for parity, there was no difference between treatments in β-hydroxybutyrate, nonesterified fatty acids, glucose, insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, or haptoglobin concentrations. Throughout the study, cows in the understocked treatment had higher mean calcium and tended to have higher albumin and at 3 wk after calving tended to have lower mean liver triacylglycerol content. Overall, there was no treatment effect on phagocytosis, but cows with a higher C_Ind in the understocked treatment group had greater oxidative burst function. There was no effect of treatment on endometritis. Despite increased competition and lower lying time, the expected harmful effects of crowding and competition on metabolic indicators and innate immune function were mostly not observed. Although this does not refute the importance of access to feeding and lying space, these results indicate that metabolic and reproductive health is more complex than can be explained solely by exposure to what are understood to be best practices for space allowances.

Performance and welfare of steers housed on concrete slatted floors at fixed and dynamic (allometric based) space allowances.

The objectives of the study were to determine whether allometric equations are suitable for estimating the space requirements of finishing beef cattle housed on concrete slatted floors (CSF) and to examine the effect of fixed and dynamic space allowances on the performance and welfare of these cattle. Continental crossbred steers [n = 120: mean initial live weight, 590 (SD 29.8) kg] were blocked by breed, weight, and age and assigned to 1 of 5 space allowance treatments (3 fixed and 2 dynamic) on CSF: 1) 2.0 m2 per animal, 2) 2.5 m2 per animal, 3) 3.0 m2 per animal, 4) Equation 1 (E1); y = 0.033w0.667, where y = m2 per animal and w = body weight, and 5) Equation 2 (E2); y = 0.048w0.667. The length of the feed face was 3.0 m for all treatments. Steers were offered grass silage and concentrates ad libitum. DMI was recorded weekly on a pen basis. Steers were weighed and dirt scored every 14 d. Blood samples were collected every 28 d, and analyzed for complete cell counts. Behavior was recorded using closed-circuit infrared cameras. Steers' hooves were inspected for lesions at the beginning of the study and post-slaughter. Slaughter weight and ADG were lowest, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) was poorest, for steers accommodated at 2.0 m2, and slaughter weight and ADG were greatest, and FCR was the best, for steers accommodated at E2 (P < 0.05); steers accommodated at 2.5 m2 were intermediate (P > 0.05) to those accommodated at 2.0 m2 and both 3.0 m2 and E1, whereas steers accommodated at 3.0 m2 and E1 were intermediate (P > 0.05) to 2.5 m2 and E2. Carcass weight of steers housed at 2.0 m2 was lower (P < 0.05) than all other treatments. Steers housed at 2.5 m2 had lower carcass weights (P < 0.05) than those with accommodated at E1 and E2, whereas the carcass weight of steers accommodated at 3.0 m2 was intermediate. Carcass fat scores and hide weights were lower (P < 0.05) in steers accommodated at 2.0 m2 than those housed at E2 with other treatments being intermediate. The number of steers lying at any one time and the number of steers observed grooming themselves was lower (P < 0.05) at 2.0 m2 than any other treatment. Dirt scores, hoof lesion number, and hematological measurements were not affected by treatment. It was concluded that 2.0 m2 per animal was an insufficient space allowance for housing finishing beef steers and that the equation y = 0.033w0.667 is sufficient for estimating the space required by finishing beef cattle housed on CSF.

Voluntary locomotor activity promotes myogenic growth potential in domestic pigs

Self-determined physical activity is an essential behavioural need and can vary considerably between individuals of a given species. Although locomotion is suggested as a prerequisite for adequate function of skeletal muscle, domestic pigs are usually reared under limited space allowance. The aim of our study was to investigate if a different voluntary locomotor activity leads to altered properties in the muscle structure, biochemistry and mRNA expression of selected genes involved in myogenesis and skeletal muscle metabolism. Based on a video tracking method, we assigned pigs to three categories according to their total distances walked over five observed time points: long distance, medium distance, and short distance. The microstructure and biochemistry parameters of the M. semitendinosus were unaffected by the distance categories. However, we found distance-dependent differences in the mRNA expression of the genes encoding growth (IGF2, EGF, MSTN) and transcription factors (MRF4, MYOD). In particular, the IGF2/MSTN ratio appears to be a sensitive indicator, at the molecular level, for the locomotor activity of individuals. Our results indicate that the myogenic growth potential of pigs under standard rearing conditions is triggered by their displayed voluntary locomotor activity, but the covered distances are insufficient to induce adaptive changes at the tissue level.

Relationship between different livestock managements and stress response in dairy ewes

Abstract. The gradual diffusion of intensive and semi-intensive production systems, especially in dairy sheep breeds, has led to the growing concern of consumers about the life conditions of farmed animals. Space allowance and structures of sheep houses are described as the main potential sources of discomfort for housed flocks, together with inappropriate milking procedures and human–animal interactions. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the structure relative to milking room could represent a stressor in Sarda dairy ewes. Animals were divided into two groups according to their farm of origin. Group A (n=40) was from a farm whose milking room was an old warehouse with a waiting area limited and located outdoors and at a different level with respect to the milking room. The passageway of the entrance in the milking room was narrow and perpendicular to the milking positioning so the animal must bend 90∘ to enter in the room. Group B (n=40) was from a farm whose milking room was wide and modern with a large waiting area located at the same level. From all animals blood samples were collected at T0 (2 h before milking procedure at 06:00), at T1 (immediately after the animals entered the milking room, about 08:00) and at T2 (after milking procedure). In addition plasma cortisol and glucose values were evaluated. Statistical analysis showed significant effect of milking room (P&lt;0.001) and of sampling time (P&lt;0.05) on cortisol and glucose levels. The results obtained in the present study suggest that, in addition to milking, the characteristics of the room where this procedure occurs represent stressful stimuli that could influence negatively the productivity and welfare of dairy ewes.

Evaluation of the effects of space allowance on measures of animal welfare in laboratory mice

We studied how space allowance affects measures of animal welfare in mice by systematically varying group size and cage type across three levels each in both males and females of two strains of mice (C57BL/6ByJ and BALB/cByJ; n = 216 cages, a total of 1152 mice). This allowed us to disentangle the effects of total floor area, group size, stocking density, and individual space allocation on a broad range of measures of welfare, including growth (food and water intake, body mass); stress physiology (glucocorticoid metabolites in faecal boli); emotionality (open field behaviour); brain function (recurrent perseveration in a two-choice guessing task); and home-cage behaviour (activity, stereotypic behaviour). While increasing group size was associated with a decrease in food and water intake in general, and more specifically with increased attrition due to escalated aggression in male BALB mice, no other consistent effects of any aspect of space allowance were found with respect to the measures studied here. Our results indicate that within the range of conditions commonly found in laboratory mouse housing, space allowance as such has little impact on measures of welfare, except for group size which may be a risk factor for escalating aggression in males of some strains.

Use of space and behavior of weaned piglets kept in enriched two-level housing system

ABSTRACTIn this study, the possibility of introducing an elevated platform to a piglet pen was explored as a way of increasing available space and creating functional areas. On the platform, nine different manipulable materials were offered. In four batches, 40 weaned piglets were kept for five weeks in the two-level pen. Video recordings were taken two days per week. In the afternoon, more piglets were on the platform than in the morning or at night (7.2 ± 0.1 vs. 4.9 ± 0.1 vs. 0.6 ± 0.1 piglets/5 minutes; p < .05). The area under the platform was preferred more in the morning and at night than in the afternoon (18.5 ± 0.1 vs. 21.6 ± 0.2 vs. 12.5 ± 0.1 piglets/5 minutes; p < .05). Up to 36 piglets were counted there simultaneously, mainly in the recumbent position. On and under the platform, air velocity and ammonia concentration were within the recommended ranges. The study concluded that a two-level pen is a feasible option to increase space allowance and to create functional areas in a piglet pen.

Development of equations to predict the influence of floor space on average daily gain, average daily feed intake and gain : feed ratio of finishing pigs

Floor space allowance for pigs has substantial effects on pig growth and welfare. Data from 30 papers examining the influence of floor space allowance on the growth of finishing pigs was used in a meta-analysis to develop alternative prediction equations for average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI) and gain : feed ratio (G : F). Treatment means were compiled in a database that contained 30 papers for ADG and 28 papers for ADFI and G : F. The predictor variables evaluated were floor space (m2/pig), k (floor space/final BW0.67), Initial BW, Final BW, feed space (pigs per feeder hole), water space (pigs per waterer), group size (pigs per pen), gender, floor type and study length (d). Multivariable general linear mixed model regression equations were used. Floor space treatments within each experiment were the observational and experimental unit. The optimum equations to predict ADG, ADFI and G : F were: ADG, g=337.57+(16 468×k)−(237 350×k2)−(3.1209×initial BW (kg))+(2.569×final BW (kg))+(71.6918×k×initial BW (kg)); ADFI, g=833.41+(24 785×k)−(388 998×k2)−(3.0027×initial BW (kg))+(11.246×final BW (kg))+(187.61×k×initial BW (kg)); G : F=predicted ADG/predicted ADFI. Overall, the meta-analysis indicates that BW is an important predictor of ADG and ADFI even after computing the constant coefficient k, which utilizes final BW in its calculation. This suggests including initial and final BW improves the prediction over using k as a predictor alone. In addition, the analysis also indicated that G : F of finishing pigs is influenced by floor space allowance, whereas individual studies have concluded variable results.

Broiler Welfare and Meat Production Efficiency in Tunnel Ventilated Environmental Control Vis-a- Vis Conventional Open Sided Shed under Different Stocking Densities

Present study was conducted to compare welfare and associated meat production performance and quality of broiler in open sided conventional broiler house (OSCBH) with floor space allowance of 1.0/ft2 per chick and in tunnel ventilated environment control broiler house (ECBH) with reducing floor space of 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7and 0.6 ft2 per chick. Average body lesions score, indicating physical injury and welfare were well within the acceptable limits of European welfare quality protocol. Stress related anti-oxidant enzyme (Glutathione peroxidase, Lipid peroxidation, Superoxide dismutase, Catalase and Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase) concentrations were higher in OSCBH (T0)) than ECBH (T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5). However percent eviscerated carcass and prime cuts did not decreased significantly (p≤ 0.05) in ECBH at higher stocking densities but meat yield per unit floor area was around 90 % higher even at 40% reduction of floor allowance.

Effects of Space Allowance and Marketing Strategy on Growth Performance of Pigs Raised to Heavy Market Weights

Effects of Space Allowance and Marketing Strategy on Growth Performance of Pigs Raised to Heavy Market Weights