Transesterification Of Soybean Oil Research Articles

Predict the characteristics of the DI engine with various injection timings by Glycine max oil biofuel using artificial neural networks.

Glycine max oil biofuel (GMOB) is a product of the transesterification of soybean oil. It contains a substantial amount of thermal energy. In this study, the result of varying fuel injection timings on the performance, ignition, and exhaust parameters of a research engine with single-cylinder, four-stroke with direct injection (DI) diesel was experimentally investigated and optimised using artificial neural networks (ANN). The results demonstrated that a 20% fuel blend with 24.5° before top dead centre (b TDC) decreased brake thermal efficiency (BTE), NOx emissions, and exhaust cylinder temperature but improved fuel consumption, carbon dioxide emissions (CDE), and smoke emissions. With 26.5° b TDC, the BTE was found to be approximately 5.0% higher while the fuel consumption was approximately 2.0% lower than with the original injection timing of 24.5° b TDC. At 26.5° b TDC, the NOx emission was approximately 8.6% higher, and the smoke emission was approximately 4.07% lower than at the original injection timing (24.5° b TDC).

Indirect Measurement of Variables in a Heterogeneous Reaction for Biodiesel Production.

This research focuses on the development of a state observer for performing indirect measurements of the main variables involved in the soybean oil transesterification reaction with a guishe biochar-based heterogeneous catalyst; the studied reaction takes place in a batch reactor. The mathematical model required for the observer design includes the triglycerides' conversion rate, and the reaction temperature. Since these variables are represented by nonlinear differential equations, the model is linearized around an operation point; after that, the pole placement and linear quadratic regulator (LQR) methods are considered for calculating the observer gain vector L(x). Then, the estimation of the conversion rate and the reaction temperature provided by the observer are used to indirectly measure other variables such as esters, alcohol, and byproducts. The observer performance is evaluated with three error indexes considering initial condition variations up to 30%. With both methods, a fast convergence (less than 3 h in the worst case) of the observer is remarked.

Upcycling Waste Snail Shells into High-Performance Nanocatalyst for Optimized Biodiesel Production: A Sustainable Approach

The transesterification of soybean oil (SO) to biodiesel utilizing a basic CaO nanocatalyst derived from waste snail shells has been reported in this work. The steady rise in greenhouse gas emissions contributes to environmental pollution, posing a significant threat to human life due to the escalating rates of petroleum consumption worldwide. Thus, biodiesel appears as a potential liquid fuel for replacing petroleum diesel. Here we have utilized waste snail shells as a cost-effective material which will reduce the overall biodiesel manufacturing cost. We obtained a remarkable biodiesel yield of 96.1 % with a very low activation energy (30.45 kJ mol−1). The catalyst displayed exceptional stability, maintaining consistent catalytic activity over six consecutive cycles without experiencing a notable decline. Using life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) it has been discovered that the estimated cost of producing 1kg of biodiesel is merely $ 0.935, highlighting its robust potential for extensive commercial adoption.

Two-dimensional Mo catalysts supported on the external surface of planar Silicalite-1 zeolite for biodiesel production from waste cooking soybean oil: Transesterification experiment and kinetics

Customized and two-dimensional Mo catalyst supported on external surface of planar Silicalite-1 (Mo/S-1-p) zeolite was prepared for efficient transesterification of waste cooking soybean oil (WCSO) to produce biodiesel. Structural characteristics show the framework structure of Mo/S-1-p was almost unchanged by introducing different Mo-loading, and the Mo6+ oxide species were only well dispersed on the outer surface of Mo/S-1-p with low Mo-loading, but the aggregation of bulky MoO3 were detected under the high Mo-loading above 5 %. Furthermore, the 5Mo/S-1-p catalyst showed a good performance and stability, which exhibited the WCSO conversion of 80.73 % and biodiesel selectivity of 99.32 %. Additionally, the intrinsic kinetics of the transesterification of WCSO catalyzed by 5Mo/S-1-p catalyst was studied after eliminating mass transfer diffusion. The corresponding kinetic equation was established through the correlation of the initial rate and the reactant concentration, and the apparent Ea was calculated to be 48.03 kJ mol−1. Finally, the fuel properties of the as-synthesized biodiesel are matched with the current international standards. This research provides a beneficial technology for the synthesis of green and inexpensive sustainable fuel.

Comparative life cycle cost analysis of bio-valorized magnetite nanocatalyst for biodiesel production: Modeling, optimization, kinetics and thermodynamic study

An active, high surface area, recyclable, magnetic, basic, iron oxide-based nanocatalyst was developed from banana leaves waste and used for microwave-assisted transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel. According to the Hammett indicator, the catalyst has a high total basicity of 15 < H < 18.4. After optimization through the response surface methodology, the reaction allows 96.5 % biodiesel yield in the presence of 24:1 methanol to soybean oil molar ratio, 6 wt% BLW@Fe3O4, 0.5 h at 65 °C. The magnetic nature of the catalyst improves reusability for up to 6 cycles. Thermodynamic analyses showed that transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel is an endothermic reaction. Moreover, the catalyst has the potential to reduce biodiesel production costs by utilizing abundant biomass waste materials. The calculated cost for 1 kg of catalyst is $1.14, while the biodiesel's cost per kg produced in this work is merely $1.05, showing high commercial viability.

Biodiesel synthesis through soybean oil transesterification using choline-based amino acid ionic liquids as catalysts

In this study, twelve choline-based amino acid ionic liquids ([Cho][AA]-ILs) were synthesized employing amino acids and choline as raw materials. [Cho][AA]-ILs were effectively employed as catalysts in the biodiesel preparation via the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol. Among the synthesized [Cho][AA]-ILs, cholinium arginate ([Cho][Arg]) was selected as the appropriate catalyst. To optimize the primary experimental reaction conditions (methanol to oil molar ratio, catalyst load, reaction temperature, and reaction time), an experimental design was achieved by the A response surface methodology (RSM) based on the Box-Behnken design (BBD). The maximum biodiesel conversion of 98.58% was achieved with the [Cho][Arg] catalyst under the following optimal conditions: methanol to oil molar ratio of 9.13:1, catalyst load of 14.75%, a reaction time of 56.44 min and temperature 81.41 °C. A first-order kinetic of [Cho][Arg]-catalyzed transesterification of soybean oil with methanol was shown with activation energy and a pre-exponential factor of 10.06 kJ·mol−1 and 1.1707 min−1, respectively. The ionic liquid [Cho][Arg] is a promising, easy to synthesize, and biodegradable catalyst that can replace traditional catalysts for the synthesis of biodiesel.

Process Optimization of Biodiesel Production Using Waste Snail Shell as a Highly Active Nanocatalyst

In this work, we reported the transesterification of soybean oil (SO) to biodiesel using a basic CaO nanocatalyst produced by sequential calcination, hydration, and dehydration of waste snail shells. Response-surface methodology (RSM) and a central composite design (CCD) were used to predict several optimization parameters. 1H-NMR confirmed that 98.5% of the SO was transformed into methyl ester biodiesel. Under the optimal reaction parameters of catalyst loading of 6 wt. %, methanol to oil molar ratio of 8 : 1, reaction duration of 3 h, and temperature of 70°C, an excellent biodiesel yield of 96.1% was obtained. The transesterification of SO to biodiesel displayed a significantly low activation energy (30.45 kJ mol-1), whereas, the turnover frequency of the transesterification reaction was found to be 0.0063 mol g-1 h-1. The catalyst showed excellent stability and was consecutively used for six cycles without a significant decline in catalytic activity. Based on life cycle cost analysis (LCCA), the estimated cost for producing 1 kg of biodiesel in this study comes out to be just $0.935, signifying its strong potential for widespread commercial use.

Evaluation of a hollow fiber membrane contactor reactor for reactive extraction in biodiesel production

A polypropylene hollow fiber membrane contactor reactor (HF-MCR) was used to evaluate the performance of a reactive extraction process for biodiesel production. The process involved the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol, catalyzed by sodium hydroxide. The experimental methodology assessed the impact of oil flow rate and methanol/oil molar ratio on the biodiesel (FAME) production rate, triglyceride reaction rate, and glycerin concentration in the final biodiesel product. The results demonstrated that, by employing a countercurrent configuration, is possible to extract the glycerin from the biodiesel-rich phase with methanol, achieving both the reaction and the separation stages in the same equipment. The best results were obtained at a methanol/oil molar ratio of 4:1 and an oil flow rate of 0.4 L h−1, leading to a triglyceride conversion rate of 0.14 mol h−1 and a FAME production rate of 0.24 mol h−1, equivalent to 34 % conversion and 56 % yield, respectively. The final biodiesel product showed a low concentration of glycerin, measuring only 0.06 % wt. This investigation highlights the potential of employing membrane contactors technology for the biodiesel production process, reducing the processing time by eliminating the biodiesel/glycerol separation stage, and therefore bringing down the load of downstream purification operations.

Sandwich like poly(ionic liquid)s functionalized microspheres: Efficient interfacial catalysts for preparation of biodiesel

Smart photo-responsive nanospheres azo-p(St-TMGILs)-OEt with sandwich like structure were prepared by introducing alkaline ionic liquids (TMG ILs) and a pioneering photo-responsive monomer (azo-TEPIC) on the surface of polystyrene microspheres by one-pot soap-free emulsion polymerization with free radical polymerization. Then the as-prepared nanoparticles were used as interfacial catalysts for constructing Pickering emulsions, wherein, azo-TEPIC was first obtained by using organosilane to functionalize azobenzene. Pickering emulsions can be reversibly switched between emulsification and breakage by alternate exposure to UV and visible light. The Pickering emulsion was used for the transesterification of soybean oil and ethanol to produce biodiesel and was found to give yields above 97% under mild reaction conditions with superior cycling stability of the catalyst.

Immobilization of Candida catenulata cells by surface-loading of an amino-functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles and its application as the sustainable whole-cell biocatalyst for enzymatic biodiesel production

In this study, the intracellular lipases of Candida catenulata were examined as a whole-cell biocatalyst (WCB) of soybean oil transesterification and obtained a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 79.1%. To facilitate the biocatalyst recovery and improve its stability, the WCB was attached to magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles activated by a linear structure of polyethyleneimine (PEI) as the multi-amino-functionalized arm. The preparation procedure of the magnetic whole-cell biocatalysts (MWCBs) was optimized by considering the pH during immobilization (X1), the weight ratio of nanoparticles-to-cell (X2), and PEI concentration (X3) using the response surface methodology. The best optimal setting of the variables was determined at X1 of 6.1, X2 of 0.6, and X3 of 0.7 w% with the transesterification activity of 7.6 × 105 IU gbiocatalyst−1 gained a FAME yield of 78.4% after 3 h. The MWCBs showed an improvement in thermal stability where the optimal temperature was shifted from 34C to 38 °C and the deactivation energy was increased from 183.9 kJ mol−1 and 223.6 kJ mol−1 after the immobilization. The MWCBs displayed satisfactory sustainability in the repeated transesterification experiments and maintained 87.3% of the original activity after 10 cycles which was higher than the bare-WCB system with a recovery of 57.4%.

Biodiesel Production Using a Banana Peel Extract-Mediated Highly Basic Heterogeneous Nanocatalyst

Greener methods for the production of nanoparticles (NPs) are highly investigated to minimize the harmfulness of chemical synthetic processes. In this study, CaO (calcium oxide) NPs were synthesized using extracts of banana (Musa acuminata) leaves. The precipitate of Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) obtained from the precursor Ca(NO3)2 (calcium nitrate) was calcined at 900 °C in a muffle furnace to form CaO. The catalytic activity of the prepared CaO was studied in transesterification of soybean oil. From the 1H-NMR analysis, a high soybean oil conversion of 98.0% was obtained under the optimum reaction conditions of 8 wt% of catalyst loading, 2 h reaction time, and a 15:1 methanol to oil molar ratio at 65 °C temperature. 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and FT-IR spectroscopic studies of the product proved the formation of biodiesel. The CaO nanocatalyst was characterized using XRD, SEM-EDS, TEM, FT-IR, XPS, and BET analyses. The average diameter of the catalyst was determined as 46.2 nm from TEM analyses. The catalyst can be used successfully even after five active reaction cycles without substantial loss in the activity of the catalyst.

Microwave-assisted biodiesel production using ZIF-8 MOF-derived nanocatalyst: A process optimization, kinetics, thermodynamics and life cycle cost analysis

In this study a novel, high surface area, and recyclable nano-size solid basic catalyst is developed for the first time from ZIF-8 MOF-derived CaO/ZnO for the high-yielding transesterification of soybean oil (SO) to biodiesel with methanol under microwave irradiation. The chemical composition, texture and morphology of the catalyst were comprehensively characterized by FT-IR, SEM-EDS, XRD, TGA, XPS and BET. In addition, 1H NMR analyses were performed to confirm the conversion of soybean oil to biodiesel, whereas, GC–MS spectrum provide information about the chemical composition of the produced biodiesel. Kinetic studies are performed for the optimized catalyst and it follows the pseudo-first-order reaction. Thermodynamic analyses show that the transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel reaction is endothermic and not spontaneous. By using Response surface methodology (RSM), the optimization of parameters that affect the biodiesel yield is studied. The transformation of 1:20 soybean oil with methanol using CaO/ZnO catalyst (7 wt%) gives 97.4 % biodiesel yield for the transesterification at 90 °C for 50 min. The catalyst shows good reusability after 5 successive cycles demonstrating its industrial-scale applications. According to Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) the estimated price of 1 kg of biodiesel produced in this work is merely $1.11 showing high commercial applicability.

Green synthesis of CaO nanocatalyst using watermelon peels for biodiesel production

Biodiesel is becoming an alternative renewable energy source as it is safe, biodegradable, and eco-friendly. Biomass-based, heterogeneous CaO nanocatalyst, prepared using watermelon peel extract was exhibited to be an outstanding catalyst for biodiesel synthesis from the transesterification of soybean oil. The optimal reaction parameters were: methanol to oil molar ratio of 20:1, catalyst content of 8 wt.%, reaction time of 2.5 h, and temperature of 65 °C. Several analytical techniques such as XRD, XPS, FT-IR, BET, SEM, TEM, and TGA were used exhaustively to study the thermal stability, chemical composition, and morphology of the green CaO nanocatalyst. Furthermore, the prepared biodiesel was characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and GC. The catalyst showed admirable stability on repetitive reuse and was found to be stable up to 5th reused cycle where a decent biodiesel yield of 81.3% was obtained.

Biodiesel Preparation without a Cosolvent in an Opposite-Side Micro-Fixed-Bed Reactor

In the process of preparing biodiesel using microreactors, cosolvents and homogeneous catalysts are generally used, which adds to the separation cost. Hence, this study explored the use of an opposite-side feed micro-fixed-bed reactor with an inner diameter of 2 mm to produce biodiesel by the transesterification of soybean oil and methanol without any cosolvent, in which a fixed solid base acted as catalyst and obstacles. A biodiesel yield of 99.4% was achieved when the methanol-to-oil molar ratio was 12, the temperature was 70 °C, and the residence time was 8.05 min. A mixing study was conducted for this microreactor through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The results showed that the best mixing index could reach 0.94 within 25 mm (length). Then, the transesterification kinetics in this reactor were found to be consistent with the proposed pseudo-homogeneous secondary reaction model. With the kinetics data and mixed-model, the biodiesel yield could be predicted. The simulated results were consistent with the experimental data.

Zr-modified desilicated ZSM-5 catalysts as highly active and recyclable catalysts for production of biodiesel from soybean oil: Insight into improved catalyst properties, acidity and dispersion through desilication

Bio-based fuels, such as biodiesel, have recently gained attention due to concern about ever-increasing energy consumption and global warming. Solid catalysts are key materials in the production of green biodiesel. The use of solid catalysts in the production of biodiesel can lower the cost of the separation and thus reduce biodiesel costs. In the present study, zeolite-supported ZrO2 catalyst (ZrO2/ZSM-5) and a series of desilicated zeolite-supported ZrO2 catalyst [ZrO2/ZSM-5(0.1–0.3 M)] were successfully synthesized by impregnation method and used as new catalysts for the production of soybean oil biodiesel through transesterification. Desilication at various sodium hydroxide concentrations enhances the external surface area and mesoporous volume, without jeopardizing crystallinity or microporosity of the catalysts. The synthesized catalysts were characterized via X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), pyridine-FTIR, scanning electron microscopy, TEM, XRF, TGA and nitrogen adsorption-desorption. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) were used to characterize the biodiesel that was produced. The as-prepared ZrO2/ZSM-5(0.2 M) catalyst exhibited better catalytic activity in the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol, compared to ZrO2/ZSM-5 catalyst, due to large pore volume, high surface area, and high dispersion of ZrO2 on the desilicated zeolite support with improved acidity and high number of active sites. A biodiesel conversion of 90.1% and 97.84% were obtained for zeolite-supported ZrO2 catalyst and desilicated zeolite-supported ZrO2 catalyst, respectively, under optimum reaction conditions of 1.0 wt% catalyst loading, 1:16 soybean oil/methanol molar ratio at 200 °C in 4 h reaction time. Moreover, the desilicated zeolite-supported ZrO2 catalyst exhibited excellent stability and re-usability giving a biodiesel conversion of 93.8% after three cycles of reuse.

Terminalia arjuna bark – A highly efficient renewable heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production

In agreement with the necessity for green synthesis, the present study elevates the feasibility of exploiting Terminalia arjuna bark calcined ash (TABCA) - a highly functional renewable heterogeneous alkaline catalyst for the cost-effective synthesis of fuel-grade fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) by soybean oil (SO) transesterification under microwave irradiation. The mesoporous nature, significant surface area, and an extreme degree of basicity owing to the presence of CaO, MgO, K2O, SiO2, Na2O, and P2O5 effectively facilitate the SO conversion. Under the optimal conditions of 24:1 M ratio of methanol: SO, 8 wt % catalyst concentration, 80 °C temperature and time period of 60 min, microwave irradiation exhibits highest biodiesel yield (99.2 ± 0.6%) and improved selectivity (100%). Likewise, FAME content in the biodiesel was found to be 99.01% from 1H NMR. The produced SO biodiesel meets the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standard requirements, making it compatible in existing engines. In addition, the mesoporous TABCA catalyst showed high stability for five consecutive transesterification reactions which yielded 80 ± 0.8% biodiesel without additional treatments.

Parkia speciosa: A basic heterogeneous catalyst for production of soybean oil-based biodiesel

A green heterogeneous catalyst was fabricated for the biodiesel synthesis via transesterification of soybean oil. The catalyst was generated by simple calcination of the biomass Parkia speciosa (Manipuri beans) at 700 °C. Characterization techniques like TGA, FT-IR, XRD, SEM, BET, TEM, STEM, EDS, XPS, and CO2-TPD were employed to analyse the catalyst. The results showed the existence of significant amount of potassium (K) with some amount of calcium (Ca) in the form of oxides and carbonates which serves as active catalytic sites for accelerating the process of transesterification. The highest biodiesel yield of 96.4 % was achieved at 40 °C, when reaction was performed for 3 h with catalyst loading of 5 wt%, 1:15 M ratio of oil to methanol and 20 wt% of co-solvent. The catalyst has also proved to be truly heterogeneous at low temperature as its efficiency remains intact even after five successive cycles. Thus, the biomass-derived catalyst can be seen as a potentially viable alternative for the conventional homogeneous catalyst.

Organic Structure-Directing Agent Free Synthesis of Mordenite with Seeds, Used as A Support for Mo Catalysts in the Transesterification of Soybean Oil

This work prepared mordenite using seeds and without organic structure-directing agents (OSDAs). The Mo/Mordenite was prepared through wet impregnation and the catalysts’ performance was checked for transesterification of soybean oil with methanol. The mordenite zeolite was prepared through hydrothermal crystallization under static conditions with a molar composition of 6Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O:Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;:30SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;:780H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. The catalyst samples were characterized crystallinity through X-ray diffraction, elemental composition by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, Surface areas by N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; adsorption-desorption, surface morphology scanning electron microscopy, functional group by infrared spectroscopy and active sites by temperature programmed desorption of ammonia. The transesterification of soybean oil was carried out using the following parameters: 5% catalyst by weight, 1:12 oil to methanol molar ratio, at 200°C for either 12 h or 24 h. X-ray diffraction patterns showed the characteristic peaks of the mordenite structure. After molybdenum oxide was added, the structure of mordenite zeolite was conserved while the specific surface area was reduced. The morphology can be described as a highly crystalline material with well-defined crystalline particles having a spherical profile characteristic of the typical morphology of sodium mordenite zeolite with a low silicon/aluminum ratio. The catalyst samples exhibited sites of a weak and medium-strength nature. The higher activity of the catalyst (Mo/Mordenite) about mordenite zeolite, could be justified by the existence of molybdenum. The wet impregnation of metal (Mo) on the surface of the MOR zeolite is an effective option to increase the acidity of the solid catalysts. Mordenite with 8.84% Mo could be a promising catalyst for the biodiesel factory.

Non Catalytic Transesterification of Vegetables Oil to Biodiesel in Sub-and Supercritical Methanol: A Kinetic’s Study

Non catalytic transesterification in sub and supercritical methanol have been used to produce biodiesel from palm oil and soybean oil. A kinetic study was done under reaction condition with temperature and time control. The experiments were carried out in a batch type reactor at reaction temperatures from 210 °C (subcritical condition) to 290 °C (the supercritical state) in the interval ranges of temperature of 20 °C and at various molar ratios of oil to methanol. The rate constants of the reaction were determined by employing a simple method, with the overall chemical reaction followed the pseudo-first–order reaction. Based on the results, the rate constants of vegetables oil were significantly influenced by reaction temperature, which were gradually increased at subcritical temperature, but sharply increased in the supercritical state. However, the rate constants of soybean oil were slightly higher than that of palm oil. The activation energy for transesterification of soybean oil was 89.32 and 79.05 kJ/mole for palm oil. Meanwhile, the frequency factor values of both oils were 72462892 and 391210 min-1, respectively. The rate reaction for both of oil were expressed as -rTG = 72462892 exp(-89.32/RT)CTG for soybean oil and -rTG = 391210 exp(-79.05/RT)CTG for palm oil. © 2013 by Authors, Published by BCREC Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)

Using critical fluid carbon dioxide to optimize the enzymatic transesterification of soybean oil and ethyl ferulate to feruloyl soy glycerides

AbstractFeruloyl Soy Glyceride (FSG) is an all‐natural replacement for petroleum‐based ultraviolet absorbing ingredients currently used in sunscreens. It is produced by the Novozym® 435‐catalyzed transesterification of ethyl ferulate (EF) with triglycerides. By‐product fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) are more soluble in CO2 than the EF and triglyceride starting materials. It was hypothesized that the preferential removal of the FAEEs over EF would drive the enzymatic reaction towards the desired FSG product. The effect of CO2 pressure and temperature on the solubilities of components of the FSG reaction mixture was studied to select optimized conditions for the enzymatic reaction and purification. Pressure–temperature conditions were then selected to use in a recycling system. The enzymatic products were analyzed for CO2 with and without recycling CO2. The solubilities of all components of the reaction mixture were proportional to CO2 density but the relative solubilities of individual components were not equal at all pressures and temperatures. At 60°C, the ratio of ethyl linoleate to EF was only 1.1 at 6.9 MPa but 3.1 at 13.8 MPa. The CO2 was recycled through the reactor at 13.8 MPa (removing more FAEE by‐products) and through the receiver at 6.0 MPa (removing less FAEEs). In the recycling treatment, the material left behind in the reactor had 99.6% FSG content. The use of the reduced pressure receiver in a recycling CO2 system effectively increased the amount of EF incorporated onto the soybean oil increasing the yield of the FSG product.