Soybean Flakes Research Articles

Reducing Washout of Proteins from Defatted Soybean Flakes by Alkaline Extraction: Fractioning and Characterization

Human health, sustainable development, numerous environmental issues, and animal welfare are increasingly driving research and development of plant-based protein products that can serve as meat substitutes. This trend is expected to continue in the coming years due to growing consumer awareness, with people gradually shifting from animal-based foods to more sustainable plant-based options. Soy proteins are a valuable source of plant proteins and are widely used in human and animal diets due to their nutritional value and health benefits. In this study, soybean protein extraction by two methods was compared: water extraction (lower salt content) and Tris-HCl extraction (higher salt content), aiming to characterize the resulting protein fractions. These fractions were studied using differential precipitation based on the isoelectric point. Protein identification by SDS-PAGE, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for cellular structure assessment, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to determine residual protein left in the solid fraction after extraction using the two methods. Electrophoresis assays revealed the presence of the four main protein fractions (2S, 7S, 11S, and soy whey proteins) in the defatted soybean flakes, establishing the protein profile of Brazilian soybeans and for the two main waste streams of the production process—spent flakes and whey. The separation of fractions was carried out by differential precipitation. FTIR analysis indicated higher residual protein levels in solid residues after the water extraction method compared to the Tris-HCl extraction method. SEM analysis revealed the removal of protein bodies in both extraction methods and the presence of residual oil-containing bodies. Both methodologies are viable alternatives for the industrial separation of soybean protein fractions. Differential precipitation could be implemented to produce isolated products and improve the nutritional profile, increase process yield thus generating less industrial waste and driving the process towards environmental sustainability.

Unleashing the power of hydrous 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran for enhanced oil extraction from rice bran and soybean flakes

Promoting renewable solvents can play a ubiquitous role in sustainable development goals. The investigation delved into the influence of temperature, solvent-to-solid mass ratio, and solvent water content on the yield of rice bran and soybean oil extraction using 2-MeTHF. The JCOSMO software delineated the charge density of solvent and solute molecules. The rice bran oil extracted exhibited a higher free fatty acid content at 26.54 wt%, contrasting with 0.93 wt% for soybean oil. FT-IR analysis was conducted to identify the main functional groups present in the biomasses and oils. The broad and asymmetric XRD peak at 20° decreased in intensity for soybean and remained unchanged for rice bran. Response surface methodology underscored temperature as the most critical variable in oil extraction from both materials, with the solvent-to-solid mass ratio showing no significant impact. Enhanced water content in the solvent proved beneficial for oil extraction from both biomasses. Notably, 2-MeTHF demonstrated higher yields than n-hexane, reaching maximum yields of 20.24 ± 0.64 g/100 g for rice bran and 22.66 ± 0.34 g/100 g for soybean flakes. This study emphasizes critical parameters for achieving higher oil extraction efficiency, highlighting the superior performance of 2-MeTHF over n-hexane. The findings can potentially optimize the extraction process for rice bran and soybean flakes, providing significant benefits for industries reliant on oil. The kinetic investigations substantiated enhanced extraction yields when employing the hydrated solvent; nonetheless, these studies also revealed heightened challenges in attaining equilibrium.

A novel approach for preparing nitrogen-doped porous nanocomposites for supercapacitors

Soybean meal or bean pulp is the residual waste obtained after extraction of oil from soybean flakes. This residue has gained significant interests because of its high nitrogen content. In this study, a one-step pyrolysis synchronous activation method has been proposed for preparing nitrogen-doped hierarchical porous bean pulp carbon (BPC) in a CO2 environment. The morphological, structural, and crystallisation properties of the BPC are adjusted by changing the treatment temperature. The BPC coated with MnO2 (BPC@MnO2) nanoparticles are further synthesised in a straightforward manner using a green hydrothermal method. The produced samples are evaluated as electrode materials for supercapacitor application. The results show that the pore structure and nitrogen species of biochar are strongly affected by the presence of CO2 and pyrolysis temperature. The coated MnO2 nanoparticles can be uniformly deposited on the surface of the BPC. The electrochemical performance of the BPC@MnO2 composite is higher than that of the BPC. A specific capacitance of 288.3 F/g can be attained for the BPC@MnO2 at the current density of 0.25 A/g. The symmetrical button capacitor made from the composite successfully lights up the light-emitting diode for more than 300 s. These novel electrode materials derived from bean pulp display considerable potentials for application in energy storage.

A framework for the application of standards, recommendations, and research on large screen displays in the function of new control rooms design

AbstractExisting display systems in most control rooms in Serbia are built on obsolete technology. To enable functional monitoring by the operators, these control rooms need to be redesigned using modern technology in a way that will optimize human interaction with the control system. This paper provides a review of published literature regarding large screen displays as well as guidance from pertinent industry standards. A significant part of this paper discusses an analysis of a new display system design in the control room. Topics analyzed include the optimal dimensions of display systems, coding of visual information, colors used on display systems, interaction between the operator and the display system, and description of the content presented on display systems. This research represents a guideline for the future design of new control rooms in Serbia's railway, mining, electric power systems, and soybean flakes production.

High‐power sonication‐assisted extraction of soy protein from defatted soy meals: Influence of important process parameters

AbstractThis study investigated the influence of important process parameters in high‐power sonication (HPS)‐assisted alkali extraction of protein from defatted soybean flakes and flour for higher yields. HPS power densities from 90 to 720 J/mL, substrate: water ratios at 1:8, 1:10, and 1:12 (wt/vol), and extraction durations of 15‐ and 30‐min were evaluated for their impact on protein recovery from meals. Extraction was carried out at 60°C and pH 8.5, and the protein content of the supernatant was determined with bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA) assay. Flakes showed the highest protein recovery of 77.5% at 720 J/mL and 15 min extraction with an unsonicated control of 63.0%. Being smaller in particle size, flour was less susceptible to HPS treatments and showed the highest protein recovery of 80.3% at 360 J/mL and 30 min extraction with an unsonicated control of 74.3%. HPS recovered a comparable amount of protein from flakes compared to recovery from sonicated or unsonicated flours. In addition, HPS treatments resulted in shorter incubation durations and generated higher yields without further extraction at 60°C. Thus, it decreased the yield difference between incubation durations and decreased cumulative protein release rate. HPS reduced the volume‐weighted mean diameter (D[4,3]) of flakes by more than fourfold; however, it did not significantly reduce the flour size further. It can thus be summarized that HPS pretreatment breaks the cellular structure of soybean meals, mostly flakes, and can significantly increase the protein recovery from them, even when extraction times are shortened.Practical ApplicationsApplication of high‐power sonication (HPS) technology was shown to increase protein extraction yields by 10‐15% beyond conventional alkali extraction from soymeal by reducing the particle size of the meal. Conventional alkali extraction utilizes soy flour and requires 30 min incubation at 60ºC, whereas HPS pretreatment increased protein extraction yield in less incubation duration andless amount of water in the substrate based on the types of substrate. Therefore, HPS could improve protein yield and reduce the cost of production by reducing incubation duration, saving energy, and utilizing flakes instead of flourduring conventional industry scale processing.

Evaluation and economics of enzyme supplementation on the performance of broiler finishers fed soybean hull meal based diets

Twenty-eight day feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the performance of broiler finisher fed soybean hull based diets supplemented with “Safzyme®”, an exogenous cellulolytic enzyme. Soybean hull also referred to as soyhull, soybean millrun or soybean flakes are by-products of the soybean milling industry. Five broiler finisher diets were formulated such that the diets contained soybean hull meal at 0%, 10% and 20% dietary levels (without enzyme supplementation) and 10%, and 20% dietary levels (with 1.0% enzyme supplementation) respectively. One-hundred and fifty (150) four-week-old Hubbard broiler chicks were divided into five groups of thirty (30) birds each and randomly assigned to five treatment diets in a completely randomized design (CRD). Data were collected on feed intake, body weight gain, feed conversion ratio and economics of production was also computed. Feed intake increased progressively as dietary inclusion of soybean hull was increased with or without enzyme supplementation. This increase became significant (P<0.05) at 20% dietary level of soybean hull. Daily body weight gains of birds on soybean hull meal diets with enzyme supplementation did not significantly differ (P<0.05) from birds on soybean hull meal diets without enzyme supplementation. Feed conversion ratio and feed efficiency were both significant (P<0.05) at 20% dietary levels of soybean hulls with or without enzyme supplementation. Dietary inclusion of soybean hull without enzyme supplementation reduced cost of feed and production of 1kg of meat while enzyme supplementation negatively affected percent feed cost savings. The results of this trial suggest that supplementation of diets containing soybean hull meal at 20% dietary levels with Safztme®, an exogenous cellulolytic enzyme, at 10% dietary level could not improve the nutritive value of the hulls for broiler finisher birds and also affected negatively percent feed cost saving.

Ergonomic design of display systems in control rooms of complex systems in Serbia

AbstractThis paper presents an ergonomic design of the display system in control rooms of four complex systems in Serbia, railway, mining, electric power, and soybean flakes production. Research of display panels analyses the visual information coding, characters' visual angles, and existing standards and recommendation in the period when this research took place. Operators' visual angles, the distance between the operator's eyes and display panels, the size of visual signs, comparative analysis of display panel and video display units used in the control room are given. The main goal of this paper is to apply the result obtained in designing a new control room in Serbia since the adequate design of display systems in control rooms has a significant impact on the efficiency and functionality of the operator's work in control centers.

Effects of Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus succinus starters on the production of volatile compounds during doenjang fermentation

Bacterial starters Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus succinus were introduced into the manufacture of doenjang, a Korean fermented soybean paste, together with a fungal starter to determine the effect of bacterial starters on flavor production during doenjang fermentation. Starters cultured on soybean flakes and rice were mixed with autoclaved soybeans and then refined salt was added to 12% (w/w) to prepare doenjang samples. The doenjang samples were ripened at 20 °C and their volatile compounds were analyzed on days 0, 28, 56, and 84. The numbers of bacteria from starter cultures in the samples decreased gradually. The content of amino-type nitrogen in samples decreased as the proportion of bacterial starter culture used in doenjang preparation increased. Nineteen volatile compounds were detected in doenjang samples by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and were subjected to principal component analysis. Addition of bacterial starters distinctively changed the flavor of doenjang compared with that prepared with a fungal starter alone. Acetic acid, 2-methylbutanoic acid, and 3-methylbutanoic acid were important volatile compounds determining flavor development in the doenjang employing bacterial starters. Starter-specific as well as highly-produced volatile compounds determined the directionality of flavor during doenjang ripening. Raw materials used for the starter culture preparation also affected the flavor.

Effect of high-power sonication pretreatment on extraction and some physicochemical properties of proteins from chickpea, kidney bean, and soybean

Impact of high-power sonication (HPS) as pretreatment in extraction and some physicochemical properties of proteins from soybean flakes, flour of soybean, chickpea, and kidney bean was evaluated. Soybean flakes and flours from soybean, chickpea, and kidney bean were dispersed in distilled water (1.10 w/v) and sonicated at two power densities (PD) of 2.5 and 4.5 W/cm3 for 5 min continuously. Proteins were extracted at pH range 8–8.5. PD 2.5 and 4.5 W/cm3 significantly increased protein extraction yields from soy flakes to 29.03% and 25.87%, respectively, compared to 15.28% for unsonicated controls, but did not increase for flours. Freeze-dried spent substrates at higher PD sonication aggregated in size. Free sulfhydryl content for both sonicated and unsonicated soy flakes and flour were similar but increased in chickpea and kidney bean when HPS of 4.5 W/cm3 was applied, indicating the unfolding of protein structure. The protein band patterns for sonicated and unsonicated legumes proteins were found to be similar, indicating no peptide profile alterations by HPS. However, circular dichroism analysis showed changes in secondary structure composition in extracted kidney bean protein causing unfolding and destabilizing the native structure. The secondary structure composition for soy flakes and flour protein and chickpea protein remained unchanged.

Safety assessment of lactic acid bacteria strains isolated from traditional Romanian fermented foods

Bacterial starters Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus succinus were introduced into the manufacture of doenjang, a Korean fermented soybean paste, together with a fungal starter to determine the effect of bacterial starters on flavor production during doenjang fermentation. Starters cultured on soybean flakes and rice were mixed with autoclaved soybeans and then refined salt was added to 12% (w/w) to prepare doenjang samples. The doenjang samples were ripened at 20 °C and their volatile compounds were analyzed on days 0, 28, 56, and 84. The numbers of bacteria from starter cultures in the samples decreased gradually. The content of amino-type nitrogen in samples decreased as the proportion of bacterial starter culture used in doenjang preparation increased. Nineteen volatile compounds were detected in doenjang samples by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and were subjected to principal component analysis. Addition of bacterial starters distinctively changed the flavor of doenjang compared with that prepared with a fungal starter alone. Acetic acid, 2-methylbutanoic acid, and 3-methylbutanoic acid were important volatile compounds determining flavor development in the doenjang employing bacterial starters. Starter-specific as well as highly-produced volatile compounds determined the directionality of flavor during doenjang ripening. Raw materials used for the starter culture preparation also affected the flavor.

Characterizing the Structural and Functional Properties of Soybean Protein Extracted from Full-Fat Soybean Flakes after Low-Temperature Dry Extrusion.

The soy protein isolates (SPI) extracted from different extruded full-fat soybean flakes (FFSF), and their conformational and functional properties were characterized. Overall, the free thiol (SH) content of SPI increased when the extrusion temperature was below 80 °C and decreased at higher temperatures. Soy glycinin (11S) showed higher stability than β-conglycinin (7S) during extrusion. Results also indicated that the increase in some hydrophobic groups was due to the movement of hydrophobic groups from the interior to the surface of the SPI molecules at extrusion temperatures from 60 to 80 °C. However, the aggregation of SPI molecules occurred at extrusion temperatures of 90 and 100 °C, with decreasing levels of hydrophobic groups. The extrusion temperature negatively affected the emulsifying activity index (EAI); on the other side, it positively affected the emulsifying stability index (ESI), compared to unextruded SPI.

LIQUID-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM AND KINETICS OF ETHANOLIC EXTRACTION OF SOYBEAN OIL USING ETHYL ACETATE AS CO-SOLVENT

This work reports a new set of experimental data for the liquid-liquid equilibrium (LLE) of the system (soybean oil + ethyl acetate + anhydrous ethanol) and the kinetics of crude oil extraction from soybean flakes using anhydrous ethanol + ethyl acetate mixtures. Data for the LLE binodal were measured at 298.15, 313.15 and 333.15K by the cloud point method and tie-lines were obtained at 298.15 and 313.15 K. LLE data were successfully modeled using the NRTL model. Batch extractions were performed at 298.15, 313.15 and 328.15 K at a fixed (4:1) solvent to soybean flake mass ratio and two concentration of ethyl acetate (5% and 10%) in ethanol. Higher temperatures increased the solubility of the system and improved the extraction yields. In addition, higher ethyl acetate ratios in anhydrous ethanol led to an increase in the total amount of crude oil extracted when operating at 298.15 and 313.15 K. At 328.15 K, no improvement in extractions was verified when 5% and 10% of ethyl acetate were used in the ethanol. A mass transfer model based on Fick’s Law was applied to describe the extraction kinetics, presenting an average relative deviation of ± 5.11%, in terms of extraction yield.

Environmental impact assessment of soybean oil production: Extruding-expelling process, hexane extraction and aqueous extraction

Expelling and hexane extraction are two typical processes for soybean oil production used in industry. The main issues for these two processes are the low efficiency and hazardous chemical problems respectively. Enzyme assisted aqueous extraction process (EAEP) was proposed to increase the efficiency without using organic solvent, which is replaced by water. The environmental impact analysis of these three processes are based on their mass flows, energy consumption and global warming potential. For mass flows, the environmental impact indices were calculated based on material flow of input and output components. Energy consumption was used to evaluate the carbon dioxide, other greenhouse gas (GHG), and criteria pollutants emissions by GREET models. According to our results, hexane extraction has the highest environmental impact due to the application of organic solvent. Expelling has the highest GHG and criteria pollutants emissions because of the high energy requirement for heat pressing processes. EAEP has similar environmental impacts to the expelling process, but it also lowers GHG and criteria pollutants emissions. EAEP has the potential to be a green process adopted by industry although a high energy intense pretreatment to produce finer soybean flakes for increasing oil recovery is still a challenge.

Continuous production of biodiesel from soybean flakes by extraction coupling with transesterification under supercritical conditions: Original research article

Biodiesel is regarded as one of the most promising alternatives for petroleum diesel. In this study, biodiesel continuous production with three kinds of reactor which are straight tube, coil and fixed bed reactor were compared, and the results showed that the fixed bed reactor needed a shortest stable time of 30min, and with the condition of methanol to oil molar ratio 42:1, 18MPa, 150min and 300°C, the highest yield: 80.11% of methyl ester was obtained. A continuous coupling process of supercritical extraction and non-catalytic supercritical methanol transesterification method for preparing biodiesel is put forward. Based on the investigation of process optimization, oil extraction was found to be the crucial step for the coupling process. The optimum reaction condition was the extraction and reaction temperature 40°C and 300°C, pressure 18MPa, and the flow rate of CO2 and n-hexane were 2l/min and 0.4ml/min, respectively. In these circumstances, the fixed bed reactor provided a yield of 83.84%.

Continuous production of biodiesel from soybean flakes by extraction coupling with transesterification under supercritical conditions

A continuous process of supercritical extraction coupling with supercritical methanol transesterification was put forward to prepare biodiesel directly from full-fat soybean flakes. This method is meaningful to the industrialized production of biodiesel. It can lower the high cost of the refined vegetable oil as feedstock. Furthermore, it gives a possibility that a mobile biodiesel processor could be easily moved to various locations where raw materials are available and produce biodiesel in situ. The experimental results indicated that a residence time of more than 2.5h was required to obtain a stable fatty acid methyl ester yield. The maximum biodiesel yield of 86% was obtained at 350°C, 20MPa and 3h, with the molar ratio of methanol-to-oil of about 42:1. In addition, based on the investigation of the process optimization, oil extraction was found to be the crucial step for the coupling process and other promising routes were proposed to improve both the production efficiency and the capacity.

Yield of Soybean Protein Isolate from Defatted Soybean Flakes Treated in an Industrial Plant and in Laboratory: Experiments and Modeling

An analysis of effects based on a statistical model was performed with a set of 40 data of yield of protein isolate (Y) as a function of five different factors from an industry of production of soybean protein isolate (SPI). At a probability level higher than 0.925, only the temperature in the desolventizer (T), and pH of the first tank of protein extraction (pH1) had a significant influence on Y. Based on this evidence, an artificial neural network model was suggested to better correlate the yield of protein isolate with the revealed significant variables (i.e., T and pH1). Multilayer perceptron networks with three to seven neurons in the one hidden layer were tested, but the best architecture involved five neurons. Over‐fitting was observed when a number of neurons larger than five was considered. The relative average deviation between measured and calculated yields was reduced from ≈3.9 to ≈1.7% when the neural model instead of the statistical one was used. A second set of 25 data of Y from laboratory experiments mimicking commercial SPI production at the designated plant confirmed the importance of T and pH1 on the examined response.Practical ApplicationsThe yield of protein isolate in industrial plants is dependent on many factors, which makes difficult to set and keep the process under optimal operating conditions. However, the current examination shows that the dynamic control of only the desolventizing temperature of defatted soy flakes and pH of protein extraction, based on a trained artificial neural network model, is a valid real‐time optimization strategy.

신령버섯균사체 액체배양물의 자가분해에 의한 항암성 isoflavone-conjugated glycoprotein 분리

Most beta-glucans obtained from various fruit bodies of mushrooms and mushroom mycelial cultures have high-molecular weight glycoproteins, conjugated with beta-glucans. We report that isoflavone- conjugated glycolproteins (designated as gluvone) were isolated and exhibited stronger anticarcinogenic activities. Agaricus blazei mycelia (ABM) was cultured in a liquid medium containing soybean flakes for 14 days. The liquid culture was autolyzed by incubating at 53℃ (pH 5.5) for 3 h. A crude glycoprotein (CGP) fraction with a cytotoxic effect on a mouse ascite cancer cell line (S-180) and a human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) was isolated from the autolyzed ABM cultures by 80% ethanol treatment. Gluvone was isolated from the CGP with Sephadex G-75 column chromatography. It exhibited a stronger anticancer effect than CGP against the S-180 cell-induced female ICR mouse ascites carcinogenesis. Gluvone with 9,400 daltons was identified as a glycoprotein conjugated with isoflavone. According to HPLC and GC analysis, in conjunction with ¹H-NMR spectral analysis, it contained 60% carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, and ribose), 31% protein, and 2% isoflavone (daidzein and genistein), which is a novel material. These results indicate that a strong anticarcinogenic gluvone was isolated from the autolyzed product of a submerged liquid culture of ABM, suggesting that autolysis could be a useful tool to produce antitumor agents.

Effect of operating parameters on mechanical expression of solvent-soaked soybean-grits.

Oil from soybean is obtained mostly by solvent extraction of soybean flakes. Legislation banning the use of hexane as solvent for extracting edible vegetable oil has forced a search for an alternative solvent and for developing a suitable oil recovery process. Expellers are being used for obtaining vegetable oil by mechanical means (expression) from oil seeds having oil content higher than 20%. It was felt, in view of the stiffness of the soybean matrix, a combination of solvent treatment and expression could be a cheaper alternative; thus an attempt has been made here to develop a two stage process constituting soaking of soybean grits in solvent followed by mechanical compression (hydraulic press) of solvent-soaked grits to recover oil. The present work aimed at studying the effect of various process parameters on oil yield from solvent soaked soybean-grits during soaking as well as pressing stages using the solvents: hexane, ethanol (alternative solvent). The process parameters were identified through holistic approach. The dependant variable was oil recovery (expressed as fraction of initial oil content of soybean) whereas the independent parameters were particle size, solvent-bean mass ratio, soaking time, soaking temperature, applied pressure and pressing time. The effect of each of the above parameters on fractional oil recovery (FOR) was studied. The results of the present study indicate that the above parameters have a significant effect on the fractional oil recovery with particle size, soaking temperature, soaking time and pressing time being the most significant factors. The present study also indicates that ethanol can be used as an alternate solvent to hexane by optimizing the factors as discussed in this paper.

Properties of Soy Protein Produced by Countercurrent, Two‐Stage, Enzyme‐Assisted Aqueous Extraction

AbstractEnzyme‐assisted aqueous extraction processing (EAEP) is an environmentally friendly technology where oil and protein can be simultaneously extracted from soybeans by using water and protease. Countercurrent, two‐stage, EAEP was performed at a 1:6 solids‐to‐liquid ratio, 50 °C, pH 9.0, and 120 rpm for 1 h to extract oil and protein from soybeans. The skim fractions were produced by three methods: (1) by treating with 0.5 % protease (wt/g extruded flakes) in both extraction stages; (2) by treating with 0.5 % protease in the 2nd extraction stage only; and (3) by using the same two‐stage extraction procedure without enzymes in either extraction stages. Countercurrent, two‐stage, protein extraction of air‐desolventized, hexane‐defatted, soybean flakes was used as a control. Solubility profiles of the skim proteins were the typical U‐shaped curves with the lowest solubility at the isoelectric point of soy protein (pH 4.5). The use of the enzyme slightly improved solubility of the recovered protein with hydrolyzed proteins having higher solubilities at acid pH. Emulsification and foaming properties were generally reduced by the use of enzyme during EAEP extractions. The skims produced with protease‐extracted (hydrolyzed) proteins gave gels with lower hardness than did unhydrolyzed proteins when heated at 80 °C. The essential amino acid compositions and protein digestibilities were not adversely affected by either extrusion or extraction treatments.

Study of process variables in supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of soybeans

Soybean flakes were extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide at 48.3 MPa and 80 °C, which is a higher temperature than previously reported. Several operational parameters were explored to determine their effect on extractions. Flakes, as typically used in this industry, provided the best extraction performance. Particle size distributions were created through grinding. Reducing average particle diameters smaller than 0.069 mm had no appreciable effect on increasing extraction efficiencies. Exploration of flow rate indicated that a residence time of less than 60 s for the supercritical carbon dioxide would be sufficient for complete extractions. A solvent mass to load mass ratio of 10:1 was found to be sufficient for extraction of oils from soybean flakes. Increasing moisture in the soybeans led to decreasing extraction efficiency of oils. Finally, soybean hulls had no effect on extraction efficiency. Thus, the de-hulling procedure can be removed from the extraction process without decreasing extraction efficiency.