Southern Limestone Research Articles

Comparative Understory Development in Fenced and Unfenced Beech Forest Stands in the Southern Alps

This study examines the impact of ungulate browsing on the understory dynamics of the Cansiglio Forest, the only European beech high forest in the Southern Limestone Alps. Utilizing seven pairs of fenced versus unfenced forest stands established over two decades, we assessed how fencing affects understory structure and tree regeneration. Significant differences were found in cover, height and vascular species composition in both tree regeneration and shrub layers. Fenced areas showed a significantly higher number and greater average height of young trees, supporting the hypothesis that ungulate browsing negatively impacts tree regeneration. Despite previous studies attributing the lack of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) regeneration primarily to red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758) browsing, our findings did not show a significant association of this species with fenced conditions. While Rubus abundance was higher inside fenced areas, overall vascular species richness did not differ. Our results highlight the evident effects of ungulate browsing and suggest the need to consider other factors influencing forest regeneration and understory development. Future research should establish additional study replicates, balanced across diverse site and stand structure conditions, to further explore these dynamics.

Repeated colonization of the Northern Limestone Alps from the Southern Limestone Alps by the rock‐dwelling snail species Cochlostoma henricae

AbstractHausdorf, B., Xu, J., BAMBERGER, S. (2024) Repeated colonization of the Northern Limestone Alps from the Southern Limestone Alps by the rock‐dwelling snail species Cochlostoma henricae—Zoologica Scripta, 00, 000–000. The evolution of biogeographic disjunctions in the Southern and Northern Limestone Alps has been studied only in a few taxa. Cochlostoma henricae (Strobel, 1851) is a land snail species restricted to limestone rocks showing such disjunctions. We studied the phylogeny and population structure of this species using genomic ddRAD data to better understand the differentiation of the species in the Southern Alps and the origin of the isolated occurrences in the Northern Limestone Alps. Phylogenetic and population‐genetic analyses of the ddRAD data revealed a subdivision of the C. henricae populations into a western cluster and an eastern cluster. These clusters were probably separated by glaciers that extended from the Piave Valley to the margin of the Alps. Such a longitudinal subdivision is a common pattern of several species in the Southern Limestone Alps. However, the boundaries between western and eastern population groups differ between taxa. Cochlostoma henricae colonized the Northern Limestone Alps at least twice. The population from Breitenwang in Tyrol originated from the western group, whereas the occurrences in the Salzkammergut are from the eastern group. These and similar disjunctions of several other land snails show that even species with limited dispersal abilities could cross the Alps repeatedly by passive long‐distance dispersal events. A subdivision of C. henricae into three subspecies, proposed based on shell characters, does not correspond to its population‐genetic structure. Instead, the eastern and western population groups represent distinct evolutionary units.

Long-term groundwater geochemical evolution induced by coal mining activities-a case study of floor confined limestone aquifer in Yaoqiao Coal Mine, Jiangsu, China.

Groundwater chemical composition can be changed due to long-term coal mining activities, but it was unclear how it was induced in Taiyuan Formation limestone (TFL) regarding the lack of relevant quantitative studies. The aim of this research is to improve understanding of the chemical composition changes in groundwater of L4 limestone in the coal mining area based on the available hydrochemical and hydrodynamical reports and studies during the period 1978-2020. The systematical analysis of the groundwater composition and field allows to make the hydrogeological characterization with the relatively independent blocks by the factor groups "Planar division & Vertical zonation" and "High water pressure, Poor recharge & Little water inflow," which determines different hydrochemical types and high TDS concentration. The long-term groundwater drainage has caused the eastern and southern limestone aquifer to demonstrate a wide range of depression cones and depletion of groundwater resources, the majority areas were dewatered, and the karstification process changed significantly. An analysis of chemical compositions changes due to extensive permanent drainage of L4 limestone water revealed the decrease in the TDS concentration. The solubility of calcite, dolomite, and gypsum changed, which resulted in the decreasing tendency of Ca2+ + Mg2+ ions. Evaporation and concentration were found to be the main factors determining the L4 limestone water composition, whereas ion exchange was the primary factor for rock-water interaction. These findings are helpful for mine enterprises to take necessary measures for preventing and controlling the groundwater quality degradation from the extensive coalmine drainage.

Preliminary observation of Marmolada glacier collapse of July 2022 with space-based cameras

ABSTRACT On 3 July 2022, a section of the Marmolada glacier (Marmolada Group, Fassa Dolomites, Southern Limestone Alps) collapsed, causing an ice avalanche resulting in the death of 11 alpinists. Before the event, there were no clear signs of any potential collapse, and no warning notices were broadcasted; due to the velocity of the avalanche, no escape was possible for the involved persons. In this work, a preliminary analysis of the Marmolada glacier collapse is performed with four optical channels space imaging provided by Planet Labs, with resolution of 3 m per pixel. Pre- and post-event satellite observations are employed to assess the areas involved in the event: multispectral images can be compared to identify the collapse area and the debris conoid. A first estimation suggests a collapse area of about 4800 m2 and a collapse volume of about 96,000 m3. In addition, historical data from the Planet Labs optical pictures database can be employed to compare the status of the detached glacier and the evolution of the crevasses on its surface.

Molecular phylogeny of Alpine groundwater Niphargidae (Crustacea, Amphipoda) reveals the effects of Quaternary climate fluctuations

The groundwater amphipod genus Niphargus comprises over 425 described species mainly distributed in the Western Palearctic. Representatives of the genus are quite rare in areas formerly occupied by Quaternary glaciers. Although a couple of species were previously discovered in high-elevation caves and karstic springs, it is only recently that the genus was found to be widely distributed along the Alpine chain (Fišer et al. 2018; Stoch et al. 2020). Using a molecular phylogeny approach, we tested the hypothesis of multiple origins of Alpine Niphargus species followed by dispersal versus allopatric speciation in glacial refugia. We sampled all type localities of species present in the Alps and collected at several new sites, both in formerly glaciated areas and in areas very close to the last Quaternary glacial border. All sequences of Alpine species stored in GenBank were downloaded and included in the analysis as well. Our results show that several phyletic lineages independently colonized the Alpine chain at different periods. We found examples of preglacial colonization, with species surviving as glacial relicts with a very limited range expansion, as well as of recent post-glacial dispersal allowing colonization of very large areas on the northern slope of the Alps. In the Southern Limestone Alps as well as in the Western Alps, most species have a distribution restricted to small karstic massifs south of the area occupied by glaciers during the Last Glacial Maximum (Stoch et al. 2022), except for a single putative relict. Three clades show a relict distribution with highly isolated species found also in caves more than 2,000 m above sea level. The reconstructed time-calibrated phylogeny strongly supports the hypothesis that the evolutionary history of most clades is pre-Pleistocenic on the southern slope of the Alps, while on the northern slope both phylogenetic relicts and recent dispersers co-exist.

Evidence for Glacial Refugia of the Forest Understorey Species Helleborus niger (Ranunculaceae) in the Southern as Well as in the Northern Limestone Alps.

Glacial refugia of alpine and subnival biota have been intensively studied in the European Alps but the fate of forests and their understory species in that area remains largely unclear. In order to fill this gap, we aimed at disentangling the spatiotemporal diversification of disjunctly distributed black hellebore Helleborus niger (Ranunculaceae). We applied a set of phylogeographic analyses based on restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) data and plastid DNA sequences to a range-wide sampling of populations. These analyses were supplemented with species distribution models generated for the present and the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). We used exploratory analyses to delimit genomically coherent groups and then employed demographic modeling to reconstruct the history of these groups. We uncovered a deep split between two major genetic groups with western and eastern distribution within the Southern Limestone Alps, likely reflecting divergent evolution since the mid-Pleistocene in two glacial refugia situated along the unglaciated southern margin of the Alps. Long-term presence in the Southern Limestone Alps is also supported by high numbers of private alleles, elevated levels of nucleotide diversity and the species’ modeled distribution at the LGM. The deep genetic divergence, however, is not reflected in leaf shape variation, suggesting that the morphological discrimination of genetically divergent entities within H. niger is questionable. At a shallower level, populations from the Northern Limestone Alps are differentiated from those in the Southern Limestone Alps in both RADseq and plastid DNA data sets, reflecting the North-South disjunction within the Eastern Alps. The underlying split was dated to ca. 0.1 mya, which is well before the LGM. In the same line, explicit tests of demographic models consistently rejected the hypothesis that the partial distribution area in the Northern Limestone Alps is the result of postglacial colonization. Taken together, our results strongly support that forest understory species such as H. niger have survived the LGM in refugia situated along the southern, but also along the northern or northeastern periphery of the Alps. Being a slow migrator, the species has likely survived repeated glacial-interglacial circles in distributional stasis while the composition of the tree canopy changed in the meanwhile.

Phylogeography, genetic structure and wing pattern variation of Erebia pronoe (Esper, 1780) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Europe.

The distribution of genetic diversity within Erebia pronoe (Esper, 1780) populations in relation to biogeographic ranges is essential for understanding the processes of evolution, speciation and phylogeography in this species. A certain degree of genetic variability was expected because of the species' linkage solely to calcareous soils. These ideas were focused on the water ringlet E. pronoe, a European endemic montane butterfly distributed over a narrow area of mountains, with its occurrence dependent on nutrient plants. Therefore, the origin, occurrence, phylogeography and variability are described in defined mountain localities in Europe in the light of glaciation events that occurred during the Quaternary (Pleistocene) period. The species' phylogeography is based on a combination of two mitochondrial genes (COI, CR) and morphology (wing morphometry). The study comprised samples from the Western Carpathians, Pyrenees, Alps, South-Eastern Carpathians (Romania) and Southern Limestone Alps (Slovenia). Moreover, the species' remarkable phylogeographic structure was observed, including four morphologic lineages and divergent genetic lineages. These lineages cover the Carpathian Mountains as well as the Western European mountains (Spanish populations) with no apparent gene flow between most regions, even across distances of only hundreds of kilometres.

On taxonomic status of shiled-head vipers from Turkish Lesser Caucasus and East Anatolia

A high morphological specialization is noted for vipers from the isolated populations of the Otlubekli Daglari Ridge, Zekeriya Village, Ardahan pass, Mt. Ilgar-Dag (Turkey), Javakheti Plateau (Armenia, Georgia). New forms of shield-head vipers are described from the Turkish Lesser Caucasus and east Turkey: Pelias sakoi sp. nov. (Otlubekli Daglari Ridge), Pelias darevskii uzumorum ssp. nov. (Southern limestone part of the Yalnizcam Daglari Ridge), Pelias darevskii kumlutasi ssp. nov. (Northern volcanic part of the Yalnizcam Daglari Ridge). Keys to identification of species and subspecies of the Pelias darevskii-olguni complex are given, and ecological differences of its representatives are discussed. The cluster and discriminant analyses on morphological features allow us to consider these vipers as separate taxa, whereas the molecular analysis on cytb does not give significant differences for most populations. This result should not be perceived unambiguously in favor of conspecificity of the considered populations. In addition to the morphological differences of the vipers, we consider such ecological differences as biotope preference, age and size of the puberty, the history of landscapes and habitats, mezoclimatic habitat characteristics, etc. Given the southern location of the Otlubekli Daglari Ridge and no signs of glaciation there, the vipers from the vicinity of Erzincan should be regarded as an ancient relic isolated form. The climate of this area has contributed to the conservation of ancient Eastern Mediterranean relics both among plants and animals.

Geophilus pygmaeus (Chilopoda: Geophilidae): clarifying morphology, variation and geographic distribution.

The European centipede Geophilus pygmaeus (Chilopoda: Geophilidae) has been known since 1880. It has been repeatedly reported since then and its validity has never been questioned. Nevertheless, a complete description of the species and an unambiguous diagnosis are still lacking. Based on the examination of one of the syntypes and > 110 specimens from 28 other localities, we provide here a full description and illustration of the morphology of G. pygmaeus and a revised and updated overview of the geographic range of the species. G. pygmaeus is less than 2 cm long, has 41-47 pairs of legs and differs from all other European species of Geophilus in a combination of characters including the shape of the forcipular apparatus and a unique arrangement of the coxal pores. G. pygmaeus is distributed through the Southern Limestone Alps, between the Bergamasque Prealps in the West and the Slovene Prealps in the East, and in the northernmost Dinarides. Published records from other European areas are actually erroneous or uncertain.

Recent ostracods (Crustacea: Ostracoda) of Alpine springs and adjacent springbrooks of the Southern Limestone Alps, Slovenia

The ecology and distribution of ostracods in Alpine springs and springbrooks from Slovenia is presented. Benthos sampling was performed and major environmental characteristics (discharge, substrate composition, temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, alkalinity, sulphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium) were measured in 12 springs and adjacent springbrooks. Sampling campaign was carried out on six sampling occasions (spring, summer, autumn in 2009 and 2010). Fourteen ostracod species were found among other fauna. The commonest and most abundant species were Psychrodromus fontinalis (Wolf, 1920) and Cavernocypris subterranea (Wolf, 1920), while the other species occurred at one or two sites at the most. Substrate composition and water temperature were statistically significant variables in explaining ostracod assemblages composition in this study.

Late Pleistocene-Holocene amphibians from Okinawajima Island in the Ryukyu Archipelago, Japan: Reconfirmed faunal endemicity and the Holocene range collapse of forest-dwelling species

Amphibian fossils excavated from two Late Pleistocene-Holocene fissures in the southern part of Okinawajima Island in the Ryukyu Archipelago were identified through detailed comparisons with skeletal specimens of extant taxa. The identified species (eight frogs and two newts) were confined to extant elements on the island and were mostly endemic to either the island or the central part of the archipelago including it. Previous Late Pleistocene records of extralimital frogs (two mainland Japanese species [Glandirana rugosa and Rana tagoi] and one Southeast Asian frog currently naturalized in the Ryukyus [Polypedates leucomystax]) from one of the study sites (the Minatogawa Fissure) are therefore considered misidentifications. This may also be the case with Fejervarya kawamurai, a synanthropic frog currently widely distributed in East Asia, including the Central Ryukyus. Of the species obtained from the Late Pleistocene deposits at these sites, five frogs (Limnonectes namiyei, Babina holsti, Odorrana ishikawae, O. narina, and Rana ulma) are forest-dwellers currently confined to the northern forested area of Okinawajima. Additionally, none of these species were detected in the middle Holocene deposits from one of the sites, the Sashiki Fissure. Our findings indicate that the southern limestone area of Okinawajima in the Late Pleistocene harbored a dense and humid forest with diverse lotic habitats, similar to the northern forested area of the island at present, and that these environmental conditions were lost by the midpoint of the Holocene Period.

Disentangling relationships within the disjunctly distributedAlyssum ovirense/A. wulfenianumgroup (Brassicaceae), including description of a novel species from the north-eastern Alps

Alyssum ovirense (Brassicaceae) is disjunctly distributed in the eastern Alps, predominantly occurring in the southern limestone Alps, but with one isolated population on the Hochschwab massif in the northern limestone Alps. The closely related rare and narrow endemic A. wulfenianum is restricted to gravel beds in a few rivers in the southern Alps draining the distribution area of A. ovirense. Applying molecular (amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting and sequencing of plastid and nuclear DNA), karyological (flow cytometry and chromosome counts) and morphometric methods to a set of populations sampled throughout the distribution range, we evaluated the status of the population on the Hochschwab massif and the relationship between high-elevation A. ovirense and low-elevation A. wulfenianum. The population on Hochschwab massif is hexaploid, morphologically clearly divergent and grows in vegetation patches and dense alpine grasslands, whereas southern Alpine A. ovirense inhabits sparsely vegetated limestone screes. Molecular data show that the former represents a genetically isolated lineage which is formally described as A. neglectum sp. nov. All populations from the southern limestone Alps, including A. wulfenianum, are diploid. Although A. wulfenianum is genetically nested in A. ovirense, its morphological and ecological differentiation justifies recognition at the subspecific level. As A. wulfenianum has priority over A. ovirense, the correct names are A. wulfenianum subsp. wulfenianum and A. wulfenianum subsp. ovirense. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 176, 486–505.

A new species of Isoperla (Insecta, Plecoptera) from the Karawanken, with considerations on the Southern Limestone Alps as centers of endemism.

A new species of the genus Isoperla (Plecoptera, Perlodidae), belonging to the oxylepis species-group is described, and the male mating call is characterized. Its range falls within a small region of the Southern Limestone Alps which is well known to be one endemism-centre of aquatic insects.

Multiple glacial refugia and postglacial colonization routes inferred for a woodland geophyte, Cyclamen purpurascens: patterns concordant with the Pleistocene history of broadleaved and coniferous tree species

The phylogeographical history of mid-altitude woodland herbs that depend on moist and shaded forest habitats is poorly understood. Here, we analysed the genetic structure of Cyclamen purpurascens, a mountainous calcicolous perennial, to test hypotheses regarding its glacial survival in single or multiple refugia and postglacial colonization routes, and to explore how they are congruent with the histories inferred for temperate trees and other mountainous herbs. We gathered AFLP data and chloroplast DNA sequences (trnD-trnT region) from 68 populations spanning the entire distribution range (the Jura Mountains, Alps, western Carpathians, Dinarides). Both genetic markers revealed two main phylogeographical groups (phylogroups) in C. purpurascens. Additionally, AFLP data detected a more detailed structure of five phylogroups: two widespread, showing east−west geographical separation, and three local ones, restricted to somewhat disjunct, marginal regions of the species range. We suggest that C. purpurascens survived the last glaciation in two main regions, the foothills of the Southern Limestone Alps and the Karst area of the north-western Dinarides, and possibly also in microrefugia in the Western Carpathians. The glacial persistence and colonization routes of this woodland herb are highly concordant with those inferred for several temperate trees, especially the European beech. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105, 741–760.

Scelianoma elydimorpha, a new genus and new species of entimine weevil from southwestern Puerto Rico (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Entiminae)

Scelianoma elydimorpha Franz & Girón, new genus and new species, an entimine weevil endemic to southwestern Puerto Rico, is described and illustrated in detail, and assigned to the tribe Eustylini (Curculionidae: Entiminae). Scelianoma is distinguished from related taxa by the following diagnostic features: shape narrowly elongate, length/width ratio 2.8-3.5; integument with densely arranged scales; pronotum without conspicuous sculpturing; male metatibia with row of 5-7 teeth, each tooth with a spine-like seta; female metatibia lacking teeth, yet with row of long, narrowly depressed setae; metatibial corbel linear; elytral humeri absent, elytra in lateral view with dorsal outline subplane, lacking cuticular projections, posterior declivity strongly angulate, slightly convex (male) to rectate (female); and wings absent. The elytra of S. elydimorpha are sexually dimorphic, attenuating in males along the posterior 5/6 yet mostly subparallel in females, and the females furthermore have two rows of erect setae along each mesal side of the declivity. Scelianoma elydimorpha is common on the southern limestone slopes of the well-preserved Guánica dry forest. The immature stages and host plants are unknown.

The Fifth ICA Mountain Cartography Workshop, Bohinj, Slovenia, 29 March–1 April 2006

The Fifth Workshop of the International Cartographic Association’s Commission on Mountain Cartography took place in Slovenia this spring. Previous mountain cartography workshops have been held in the Austrian Alps (Silvretta 1988, Rudolfshutte 2000), North America’s Cascade Range (Mount Hood 2002), and the Catalan Pyrenees (Val de Nuria 2004). This year the mountain cartographers returned again to the Alps, but this time to the southern limestone region. The workshop venue was the Gozdna sola (forest school), the National Training Centre of the Scout Association of Slovenia. The centre is located near Lake Bohinj, 533 m above sea level, in Triglav National Park, a protected area of forests and mountains, including Triglav (2864 m), the highest peak in Slovenia and the Slovenian national symbol.

Macroinvertebrate communities of karst springs of two river catchments in the Southern Limestone Alps (the Julian Alps, NW Slovenia)

The macroinvertebrate communities of 16 karst springs in the Southern Limestone Alps (Slovenia, SE Europe), were studied from May to September 1999, together with the major chemical parameters of the water and selected physical characteristics of the springs. The springs are located in an area of 800 km 2 , between 410 and 955 m a.s.l., and drain into two rivers whose catchments are separated by mountain ranges up to 2864 m. The Soca river drains into the Adriatic Sea and the Sava into the Black Sea. Springs showed relatively large fluctuations in discharge and small variations in temperature (normally about 1 C) during the period of study. Seventy macroinvertebrate taxa were collected. Chironomidae (Diptera), Limnephilidae (Trichoptera), Enchytraeidae (Oligochaeta), Tricladida (Turbellaria) and Belgrandiella kuesteri (Gastropoda) were the most widespread taxa, collected from the majority of sampling sites. The environmental characteristics showed a great heterogeneity, and there was a large variation in the taxo- nomic composition and relative abundance of taxa between springs and during seasons. The coexistence of taxa with highly divergent ecological requirements is characteristic of the spring communities studied. They range from stygobionts and spring-restricted species to ubiquitous species. The differences observed in spring fauna in the two river catchments were probably dictated by differences in local environmental parameters and not by the geographical location in the different river catchments.

Mid‐Holocene vegetation diversity in eastern Cumbria

SummaryThe concept of biodiversity can operate at several different ecological levels from that of the Global ecosystem to the genetic diversity of a single species. This paper focuses on the beta‐type diversity of vegetation communities at the intra and inter‐regional scale, using five mid‐Holocene (Neolithic) pollen diagrams from eastern Cumbria (c. 500 km2 centred on the Eden valley). The sites were selected in order to include the variation in both soil/rock type and altitude within the study area, ranging from the Eden valley and southern limestone plateau to the foothills and summits of the western edge of the Pennines. The local pollen component which is dominant in these small sites, is used to determine intra‐regional vegetation diversity for a time‐slice in the Neolithic. Simple statistical methods are used to compare sites and as a measure of intra‐regional vegetation‐type diversity. This is compared with estimates of the community diversity for the British Isles during the same period. The results suggest that the intra‐regional vegetation diversity is comparable to that of Northern England, and it is related to variation in both altitude and soil type. There are some differences, for example the steepness of the western face of the Pennines is probably responsible for a lack of the pine dominated zone, and pedological constraints probably prevented the full development of woodland on the limestone plateau at the south of the study area. The open landscape of the limestone plateau acted as a refuge for late glacial herbaceous taxa prior to their re‐expansion into the wider landscape after widespread deforestation and arable cultivation. The results have implications for both the mapping of past vegetation at the national scale and for landscape archaeology.

Long Barrows and Neolithic Elongated Enclosures in Lincolnshire: An Analysis of the Air Photographic Evidence

The long barrows of Lincolnshire have been the subject of long-term but intermittent interest. One aspect not investigated hitherto is the air photographic evidence for plough-levelled long barrows. Recently completed mapping work in the county by the Aerial Survey section of the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (RCHME), as part of the National Mapping Programme, has made possible the analysis of the air photographic evidence. This article presents an evaluation of that evidence and considers its significance in terms of the Neolithic of the region.A comprehensive survey of air photo collections has dramatically increased the number of long barrows known in the county, identifying over 50 examples of levelled sites. The majority are found on the chalk Wolds where the dozen surviving earthwork monuments are located. The distribution of long barrows in the county may now be extended onto the Jurassic Limestone ridge to the west where five examples have been recorded. The Lincolnshire long barrow enclosures have three categories of shape; oval, trapeziform, and oblong. The ditch plan is predominantly full-enclosing, and is found as the distinct form in the eastern region of England. The morphology and dimensions of two sites suggests they may have been a long mortuary enclosure or short cursus.At Harlaxton in the southern Limestone a long barrow enclosure forms part of an extensive later Neolithic ritual complex which incorporates a multiple pit-alignment as a principal component. The form of the complex appears to be unique and underlines the importance of Harlaxton as an inter-regional link.

Societies and Academies

LONDON. Geological Societv, December 6.—Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. T. F. Sibly: The faulted inlier of Carboniferous Limestone at Upper Vobster (Somerset). The Upper Vobster inlier lies rather less than a mile to the north of the main outcrop of the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendips. This inlier has been dissected by quarrying operations. The northern and eastern portions are concealed by a covering of Lias, but its width from north to south is little, if at all, greater than 400 yards, while the east-and-west extent of the Carboniferous Limestone is about 1100 yards. The author has arrived at the following conclusions:—The inlier is a lenticular mass of Carboniferous Limestone, grits, and shales, superimposed upon the overfolded strata of the Coal Measures by thrust- movements. It comprises a northern limestone mass and a southern limestone mass, separated by a grit-and-shale mass. The beds of the grit-and-shale mass are in faulted relation to the Carboniferous Limestone. On the northern side, the adjacent beds of limestone represent part of the Seminula zone; on the southern side, the adjacent beds belong to the lower Dibunophyllum zone. In the northern limestone mass, Vobster Quarry exposes more than 500 feet of Seminula beds, overfolded towards the north-west. In the southern limestone mass the strata are locally overfolded northwards. The beds of the grit-and-shale mass comprise quartzites assigned to the Millstone Grit. They also include shales, with intercalated fine-grained sandstones. Possibly this mass includes the lowest beds of the Coal Measures, in addition to a portion of the Millstone Grit. In sections of Carboniferous Limestone, signs of the stresses to which the strata have been subjected are evident. The beds are often distorted, while slickensides and calcite-veins are developed. The occurrence of a lamellibranch fauna at the top of the Seminula zone is recorded.J. Romanes: Geology of a part of Costa Rica. The part of Costa Rica to the west of San Jose as far as the Pacific coast is dealt with. San Jose is situated in a valley sloping westwards, and drained by the Rio Grande and its tributaries. The northern boundary of this valley is the chain of recent volcanoes which rise from its floor, while on the south the ground rises abruptly to form the Cerro Candelaria. In this range of mountains are exposures of limestone, marl, &c., together with igneous rocks. An examination of exposures has failed to produce any Cretaceous fossils, while the occurrence of numbers of Balani points to a Tertiary age for the beds. As this limestone stretches across the Atlantic-Pacific watershed, it yields evidence of an interoceanic connection in this area in Tertiary times. Of the igneous rocks, the most interesting feature is the presence of many boulders of monzonite, indicating a plutonic mass in these mountains. The surface of the valley is composed of a thick series of andesitic lavas. On the Pacific coast at Barranca and Manzanilla fossiliferous Tertiary beds are described. These are all marine ashes, and in the Manzanilla district appear to rest unconformably on an older limestone formation. The boulder-clays of Costa Rica are normal river deposits, though, locally, landslides and spheroidal weathering have played an important part.