Southern Hemisphere Countries Research Articles

Were the 2022 Summer Heatwaves a Strong Cause of Europe’s Excess Deaths?

During the 2022 summer, Europe experienced heatwaves with record temperatures, and a study has argued that they caused about 62,000 deaths between 30 May and 4 September. The total number of excess deaths during the same period was about 137,000, indicating that the heatwaves were a substantial contributor. Not ruling out that explanation entirely, this paper argues that it was unlikely a strong cause. First, if the heatwaves were a strong cause of numerous deaths, one would assume that the older and deprived were relatively likely to die. However, during the 2022 summer heatwaves in England, which were claimed to have caused about 2900 deaths, the oldest age cohort did not have a higher excess death rate than the middle age cohort, and the excess death rate actually decreased with deprivation status. Moreover, Iceland had among Europe’s highest excess death rates during the summer, which cannot be attributed to heatwaves. During June, July, and August 2022, comparable southern hemisphere countries furthermore had high excess death rates, which cannot be attributed to heatwaves either, as it was during their winter. Also, Europe’s excess death rate was higher during the 2022–2023 winter than during the 2022 summer, and intuitively not attributed to heatwaves, but neither to cold weather, as that winter was abnormally mild. Finally, the paper discusses the puzzling issue that about 56% more women than men, relative to the population, presumably died from the heatwaves.

The effect of population ageing on technological innovation in emerging market countries

This study reveals a significant inverted U-shaped relationship between population ageing and technological innovation in emerging market countries. The research explores this relationship from two perspectives: religion and region. First, when analysing different groups based on the proportion of religious population, it is observed that both countries with a high and low proportions of religiously affiliated individuals exhibit a significant inverted U-shaped relationship between ageing and innovation. As for regional variations, the Southern hemisphere countries displayed a significant relationship, while the Eastern and Western hemispheres did not. Education and research and development (R&D) investment positively influence innovation, particularly in countries with a lower proportion of religious population. Conversely, economic development and foreign investment hinder innovation in countries with a lower proportion of religious population but have a positive effect in countries with a higher proportion of religious population. This study, through mechanism analysis, found that ageing also has an inverted U-shaped impact on technological innovation by influencing both labour supply and human capital investment. Previous research has not addressed the ageing population and technological innovation in emerging market countries. The analysis establishes a theoretical foundation for emerging market countries' governmental macroeconomic regulation.

Patterns of Dothistroma septosporum conidial dispersal in Colombian Pinus tecunumanii plantations

AbstractDothistroma needle blight (DNB) caused by Dothistroma septosporum is one of the most important needle diseases of Pinus spp., especially in Southern Hemisphere plantations. In Colombia, the pathogen has caused severe outbreaks in plantations of Pinus tecunumanii of the low elevation population (LE). Currently, management strategies suffer from a lack of knowledge regarding the epidemiology of D. septosporum under tropical climatic conditions. In this study we determined the patterns of conidial dispersal and considered how climatic conditions in Colombia influence them. The study was conducted over 15 consecutive months between October 2010 and December 2011 using glass slide‐based spore traps. Conidia were found on the traps throughout the year, with the peak abundance during November to January (2010) and November to December (2011). During peak conidial production, relative humidity and temperature had the greatest influence on conidial dispersal. Favourable weather conditions in Colombia, particularly rainfall, have contributed to continuous conidial production throughout the year, leading to D. septosporum infections all year round. This high reproductive rate as a consequence of high precipitation is in contrast to other Southern Hemisphere and Northern Hemisphere countries with more specific periods of rainfall and infection.

Global variability of influenza activity and virus subtype circulation from 2011 to 2023

BackgroundAlthough decreased influenza activity has been reported in many countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, it remains unknown how global influenza activity has changed. We described the global variability of influenza...

Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of urban and rural water scarcity and its influencing factors across the world

Water scarcity is essentially caused by the spatiotemporal mismatch of water availability and water withdrawal. However, existing studies are still insufficient in revealing the spatiotemporal heterogeneity and rural–urban differences of global water scarcity and its influencing factors. Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap. From 1960 to 2014, both of the water-scarce population and its proportion in the total population showed a growth trend. The annual growth rate of water-scarce urban population was higher than that of water-scarce rural population, but the standard deviation of monthly water-scarce rural population was higher than that of water-scarce urban population. The proportion of water-scarce population was high and also variable across months in the middle- and low-latitude countries of the Northern Hemisphere, such as Pakistan, Mexico and Iran. Expansion of water-scarce areas had contributed to 60% of the global water-scarce population growth, while the relative contribution of population increases in the initial water-scarce catchments was about 40%. As for the expansion of water-scarce areas, the relative contributions of irrigation, domestic, and industrial water withdrawal were 35.28%, 24.28%, and 17.02%, respectively. In most high-latitude countries of the Northern Hemisphere, industrial water withdrawal was the main influencing factor. In several Southern Hemisphere countries, domestic water withdrawal was the most influential factor. In most Asian countries, the impact of irrigation water withdrawal was considerable. In addition, the impacts of water availability and irrigation water withdrawal were greatest in July, while the impacts of domestic and industrial water withdrawal were greatest in December. The relative contributions of water availability and irrigation water withdrawal were highly variable in Iran, Pakistan and India. The monthly variability in industrial water withdrawal was high in European countries. There was high variability in all influencing factors in China and some Central Asian countries. According to the variability of water scarcity and influencing factors, water-scarce countries should implement effective water resources management, based on the potential solutions such as the construction of water conservancy facilities, virtual water trade, and improving the efficiency of water use and recycling.

Spatial and Ecological Factors Modulate the Incidence of Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis-A Systematic Review.

Anti-NMDAR encephalitis has been associated with multiple antigenic triggers (i.e., ovarian teratomas, prodromal viral infections) but whether geographic, climatic, and environmental factors might influence disease risk has not been explored yet. We performed a systematic review and a meta-analysis of all published papers reporting the incidence of anti-NMDAR encephalitis in a definite country or region. We performed several multivariate spatial autocorrelation analyses to analyze the spatial variations in the incidence of anti-NMDA encephalitis depending on its geographical localization and temperature. Finally, we performed seasonal analyses in two original datasets from France and Greece and assessed the impact of temperature using an exposure-lag-response model in the French dataset. The reported incidence of anti-NMDAR encephalitis varied considerably among studies and countries, being higher in Oceania and South America (0.2 and 0.16 per 100,000 persons-year, respectively) compared to Europe and North America (0.06 per 100,000 persons-year) (p < 0.01). Different regression models confirmed a strong negative correlation with latitude (Pearson's R = -0.88, p < 0.00001), with higher incidence in southern hemisphere countries far from the equator. Seasonal analyses showed a peak of cases during warm months. Exposure-lag-response models confirmed a positive correlation between extreme hot temperatures and the incidence of anti-NMDAR encephalitis in France (p = 0.03). Temperature analyses showed a significant association with higher mean temperatures and positive correlation with higher ultraviolet exposure worldwide. This study provides the first evidence that geographic and climatic factors including latitude, mean annual temperature, and ultraviolet exposure, might modify disease risk.

Upaya G20 Dalam Mendorong Pemulihan Ekonomi Kawasan Southern Hemisphere Pasca Pandemi Covid-19

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a terrible pandemic and has an impact on the global economic crisis, including the southern hemisphere. Solidarity, collaboration and cooperation among southern countries are demands in fighting the economic crisis due to the Covid-19, one of which is through the G-20. This is shown by the G20 in the theme carried out in 2022, namely “Recover together, recover stronger” through strengthening global solidarity. This study aims to analyze the efforts of the G20 in encouraging the economic recovery of the southern hemisphere countries, during the Covid-19 pandemic. Descriptive-qualitative research method is used in analyzing the issue, accompanied by data collection techniques through literature study. The results of this study indicate that the G20 has attempted several ways to encourage post-pandemic economic recovery in the southern hemisphere, through: International Financial Architecture, Financial Sector Reform, Sustainable Finance. Infrastrukture, and International Taxation

Recapping and mite removal behaviour in Cuba: home to the world’s largest population of Varroa-resistant European honeybees

The Varroa destructor ectoparasitic mite has spread globally and in conjunction with Deformed Wing Virus has killed millions of honeybee (Apis mellifera) colonies. This has forced Northern hemisphere beekeepers into using miticides to avoid mass colony losses. However, in many Southern hemisphere countries widespread treatment did not occur since miticides were prohibitively expensive, or a centralised choice was made not to treat, both allowing natural selection to act. The Varroa mite initially caused high losses before mite-resistance appeared in the honeybee populations. Initially, mite-resistance was only associated with African and Africanised honeybees. Although recently, several isolated mite-resistant European honeybee populations have appeared. Here we studied the mite-resistance in Cuba and found high rates of recapping of infested worker cells (77%), high removal of mites (80%) and corresponding low mite fertility (r = 0.77). These are all traits found in all naturally evolved Varroa-resistant populations. We can confirm Cuba has the world’s largest European mite-resistant population with 220,000 colonies that have been treatment-free for over two decades and illustrating the power of natural selection. Cuban honeybees are also highly productive, 40–70 kg of honey produced annually, and are mild mannered. Cuba is an excellent example of what is possible when honeybees are allowed to adapt naturally to Varroa with minimal human interference.

Potential, trend and economic assessments of global wave power

Renewable energies with reasonable structure are required to replace traditional fossil energies to against the global anthropogenic warming and energy crisis. Hydropower has provided the largest resource of renewable energy during the last decades; however, only less than 27.6% is potentially available in Southern Hemisphere countries. Here, we found that wave power can remarkably supplement hydropower at the global scale, and wave power can supply more than half of the electricity demands in 44 coastal countries. During the period from 1979 to 2018, wave power is generally increasing along 71.3% of the coast (especially along 88.9% of the southern coast); but hydropower generation in 54% of coastal countries has decreased recently. In the basic scenario, the cost of developing wave power in 72 and 70 coastal countries is less than their half prices of national household and business electricity, respectively; even in the pessimistic scenario, economically exploitable wave power potential is about 82% of theoretical potential. Our finding highlights the potential wave power in maintaining the international security of energy budget in future.

How Seasonality and Control Measures Jointly Determine the Multistage Waves of the COVID-19 Epidemic: A Modelling Study and Implications.

The current novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a multistage epidemic consisting of multiple rounds of alternating outbreak and containment periods that cannot be modeled with a conventional single-stage Suspected-Exposed-Infectious-Removed (SEIR) model. Seasonality and control measures could be the two most important driving factors of the multistage epidemic. Our goal is to formulate and incorporate the influences of seasonality and control measures into an epidemic model and interpret how these two factors interact to shape the multistage epidemic curves. New confirmed cases will be collected daily from seven Northern Hemisphere countries and five Southern Hemisphere countries from March 2020 to March 2021 to fit and validate the modified model. Results show that COVID-19 is a seasonal epidemic and that epidemic curves can be clearly distinguished in the two hemispheres. Different levels of control measures between different countries during different seasonal periods have different influences on epidemic transmission. Seasonality alone cannot cause the baseline reproduction number R0 to fall below one and control measures must be taken. A superposition of a high level of seasonality and a low level of control measures can lead to a dramatically rapid increase in reported cases.

Developing digital competency in HPETE: a heuristic for and analysis of three programs in the Southern Hemisphere

ABSTRACT This paper presents a heuristic tool that can be used to analyse and reflect on the inclusion of digital competences in Health and Physical Education Teacher Education (HPETE) programs. The tool is used to identify and compare how HPETE programs in three Southern Hemisphere countries address digital competency as an aspect of learning to teach Health and Physical Education (HPE). The results reveal that the tool provides an effective way of analysing the development of digital technologies through HPETE. While these programs are concerned with the need for technology education, they do not rely on suggested international frameworks and have a different focus related to future teachers’ digital competences. The lack of a systematic policy to improve digital skills in our data suggests that technology education has emerged from localised efforts. We suggest that our heuristic tool can support educators to refine the inclusion of digital competences in HPETE programs.

Study Pre-protocol for "BronchStart - The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Timing, Age and Severity of Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Emergency Presentations; a Multi-Centre Prospective Observational Cohort Study".

Background: Bronchiolitis (most frequently caused by respiratory syncytial virus; RSV) is a common winter disease predominantly affecting children under one year of age. It is a common reason for presentations to an emergency department (ED) and frequently results in hospital admission, contributing to paediatric units approaching or exceeding capacity each winter. During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the circulation of RSV was dramatically reduced in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Evidence from the Southern Hemisphere and other European countries suggests that as social distancing restrictions for SARS-CoV-2 are relaxed, RSV infection returns, causing delayed or even summer epidemics, with different age distributions. Study question: The ability to track, anticipate and respond to a surge in RSV cases is critical for planning acute care delivery. There is an urgent need to understand the onset of RSV spread at the earliest opportunity. This will influence service planning, to inform clinicians whether the population at risk is a wider age range than normal, and whether there are changes in disease severity. This information is also needed to inform decision on the timing of passive immunisation of children at higher risk of hospitalisation, intensive care admission or death with RSV infection, which is a public health priority. Methods and likely impact: This multi-centre prospective observational cohort study will use a well-established research network (Paediatric Emergency Research in the UK and Ireland, PERUKI) to report in real time cases of RSV infection in children aged under two years, through the collection of essential, but non-identifying patient information. Forty-five centres will gather initial data on age, index of multiple deprivation quintile, clinical features on presentation, and co-morbidities. Each case will be followed up at seven days to identify treatment, viral diagnosis and outcome. Information be released on a weekly basis and used to support clinical decision making.

The continental, the hemispheric and the global Antarctica: Southern perspectives of climate change and the governance of Antarctica

ABSTRACT The present paper seeks to examine southern perspectives on climate change and their effects on Antarctica. Following that objective, the paper analyses, from a theoretical/philosophical and historical perspective, three different images of Antarctica that have played key roles in shaping the governance of the continent. Thus, I distinguish between the idea of a continental Antarctica, characterised as exceptional and isolated; the idea of a hemispheric – or regional – Antarctica, which relates to the vicinity of the southern hemisphere countries, their environmental identity with the southern polar regions and the more direct and immediate linkages between the Antarctic and the southern countries’ environments; and the idea of a global Antarctica, which stress the planetary dynamics that interlink the continent with the global phenomena. Whether the Antarctic Treaty and the evolution of the Antarctic Treaty System seem to have incorporated those different images successfully, the evolving and increasing phenomenon of climate change has stressed the idea of the global Antarctica as opposed to the continental Antarctica, disregarding the image of the hemispheric Antarctica. That could lead to efforts to widen or even open up participation in the regime, an option that most likely would confront a strong rebuttal from existing southern member countries, in particular from those that hold territorial claims upon Antarctica. As a conclusion, I argue that any successful attempt to address the global problem of climate change needs to take into account the perspectives of the southern countries and their particular identity/links with the Antarctic region, including their environments; and that any possible governance framework would need to accommodate the three disparate visions of Antarctica in order to be successful and ensure that the Antarctic remains free from strong political discord and conflicts.

Assessing the subnational-level yield forecast skills of the 2019/20 season NARO-APCC Joint Crop Forecasting Service for Southern Hemisphere countries

Assessing the subnational-level yield forecast skills of the 2019/20 season NARO-APCC Joint Crop Forecasting Service for Southern Hemisphere countries

Behavioural responses of diapausing Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to conspecific volatile organic compounds

AbstractThe brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys Stål (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is an invasive pest in America, Europe and Asia and causes serious economic loss to crops, and nuisance problems during overwintering. Uninvaded southern hemisphere countries, such as New Zealand and Australia, see an increase in H. halys border interceptions during the northern hemisphere populations’ overwintering period as large aggregations of H. halys can settle to diapause in items for export, e.g. vehicles, containers, etc. Here, we explored aspects of diapausing H. halys behaviour relative to release and perception of defensive odour compounds. First, to determine whether group size and agitation affect the release of defensive odours, diapausing H. halys were confined in glass tubes as individuals or in varying group sizes and mechanically agitated or remained stationary and the presence or absence of defensive odours was recorded. Using gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry, we also established if exposure to individual defensive odour components (tridecane, (E)‐2‐decenal, 4‐oxo‐(E)‐2‐hexenal, and dodecane) induced individuals to release defensive compounds. Additionally, H. halys dispersal was measured in the laboratory following exposure to individual components of their defensive odour or their natural blend. We found that agitating individual bugs did not induce the release of defensive odours. The release of human‐detectable odours was only found in groups of mechanically agitated H. halys, whereas non‐agitated bugs did not emit odour. Exposure to 4‐oxo‐(E)‐2‐hexenal was the only odour component that resulted in individual H. halys releasing defensive compounds. Diapausing H. halys exposure to the natural blend of defensive compounds resulted in increased horizontal distance moved and velocity, while tridecane exposure increased distance moved, velocity and angular velocity, and (E)‐2‐decenal exposure increased distance moved. Our behavioural and chemical data suggest that defensive compounds released by diapausing H. halys act as an alarm pheromone, particularly when adults are in aggregations.

Consequences of COVID-19 pandemic over acute bronchiolitis hospitalizations in the center and east of Spain

IntroductionNon-pharmaceutical interventions that have been implemented in southern hemisphere countries because of COVID-19 pandemic declaration in March 2020, have evidenced some unexpected changes in the way of spreading of many other viruses. This study as a part of ECEALHBA’s Project, reports the consequences of COVID-19 pandemic over 2020–2021 bronchiolitis epidemic period in the Central and Eastern regions of Spain. MethodMulticenter, observational, descriptive and ambispective study of admitted infants with the diagnosis of bronchiolitis in 16 Spanish hospitals involved in the investigation project. Five epidemic periods previous to COVID-19 pandemic, from 2015 to 2020, were compared with the current one, 2020–2021, in both a qualitative and quantitative manner. ResultsTotal of 4643 infants were admitted to the participating hospitals along the study period. Pandemic season hospital admissions for bronchiolitis were 94.1% lower than in pre-pandemic period. December and January were peak months for bronchiolitis admissions during pre-pandemic period, but September was the peak month during pandemic year. There was a progressive decrease of admissions from this moment until the end of the follow-up, in April 2021. Rhinovirus has been the commonest etiology for bronchiolitis in 2020–2021 epidemic period of bronchiolitis. ConclusionsSome of the non-pharmaceutical interventions initiated because of COVID-19 pandemic are probably related to the dramatic decrease of bronchiolitis cases in 2020–2021 season. It would be rewarding to purpose novel research to clarify how these simple interventions can be useful, close to vaccines and antiviral drugs, to achieve the goal of avoiding the spread of respiratory viruses in pediatric population.

Territorial and Temporary Spread of COVID-19 in the World at the Beginning of the 2020 Pandemic

Relevance. COVID-19 remains a serious problem for all countries of the world, affecting all areas of public life. The brunt of the problem falls on health care. The new coronavirus infection has raised many questions, in particular regarding its epidemiologyAim. Determine the sequence of the global spread of COVID-19 at the beginning of the 2020 pandemic and the possible influence of seasonality on its distribution.Materials and methods. Data on the countries of the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the sites «Our World in Data» from the section «Coronavirus (COVID-19) Cases». Стопкоронавирус.рф, Johns Hopkins University were used. The analysis of the spread of COVID-19 in the world was carried out based on data on the incidence and deaths from COVID-19 by climatogeographic zones.Results and discussion. The sequence of the spatio-temporal spread of COVID-19 across countries and continents at the beginning of the pandemic in 2020 has been determined. The similarity of the global spread of COVID-19 and "seasonal" influenza A(H3N2) epidemics indicates the spread of these infections along the primary migration routes of the population. The global spread of the COVID-19 pandemic virus, as well as influenza A(H1N1), was sufficient for 1–1.5 months. The COVID-19 pandemic began in the Northern Hemisphere in the spring and summer, but atypical seasonality was often observed at the beginning of influenza pandemics. On the other hand, data on the influence of seasonality on the spread of COVID-19 were obtained: the highest incidence in the Northern Hemisphere countries was in the winter, and in the Southern Hemisphere countries, with reverse seasonality, a high incidence was observed already in the summer months. Therefore, it will be possible to make a final conclusion about the seasonality of this infection in the following years.

Delayed Seasonal RSV Surge Observed During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

* Abbreviations: NYC — : New York City RSV — : respiratory syncytial virus An unexpected positive outcome of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has been the marked decline in illness associated with other respiratory viruses, likely due to the widespread use of masks and social distancing. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a seasonal virus that typically peaks in the fall and declines by early spring. In the United States, RSV is responsible for annually 57 000 hospitalizations and 500 000 emergency department visits among children <5 years old.1 Reports from around the world have revealed up to a 98% reduction in RSV cases during the pandemic.2,3 The initial studies came from the Southern Hemisphere countries that were at the beginning of their fall season in March 2020, when the pandemic started.3 It was unclear whether the 2020–2021 RSV season would continue to be markedly reduced or just be delayed.4 In a recent study from Australia, researchers described an RSV surge as physical distancing restrictions were relaxed. The number of RSV cases began to increase during their spring months and peaked in … Address correspondence to Rabia Agha, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Maimonides Children’s Hospital. 4802 Tenth Ave, Brooklyn, NY 11219. E-mail: ragha{at}maimonidesmed.org

Marine meteorological forecasts for coastal ocean users – perceptions, usability and uptake

Abstract. The present study aims to address a disconnect between science and the public in the form of a potential misalignment in the supply and demand of information known as the usability gap. In this case, we explore the salience of marine meteorological (metocean) information as perceived by users in two Southern Hemisphere countries: South Africa and New Zealand. Here, the focus is not only on the perceptions, usability and uptake of extreme event forecasts but rather focused on general, routine forecast engagement. The research was conducted by means of a survey, designed around three research questions. The research questions covered topics ranging from forecasting tool ergonomics, accuracy and consistency, usability, institutional reputation, and uncertainties related to climate change (to name but a few). The online questionnaire was widely distributed to include both recreational and commercial users. The study focused on identifying potential decision-making cultures that uniquely impact coastal ocean users' information needs. Cultural consensus analysis (CCA) was used to investigate shared understandings and variations in perceptions within the total group of respondents as well as in sectoral and country-based subgroups. We found varying degrees of consensus in the whole group (participants from both countries and all sectors combined) versus different subgroups of users. All participants taken together exhibited an overall moderate cultural consensus regarding the issues presented but with some variations in perspectives at the country-level, suggesting potential subcultures. Analysing national and sectoral subgroups separately, we found the most coherent cultural consensus in the South African users' cohort, with strong agreement regardless of sectoral affiliation. New Zealand's commercial users' cohort had the weakest agreement with all other subgroups. We discuss the implications from our findings on important factors in service uptake and therefore on the production of salient forecasts. Several priorities for science-based forecasts in the future are also reflected on, considering anticipated climate change impacts. We conclude by proposing a conceptual diagram to highlight the important interplay between forecast product co-development and scientific accuracy/consistency.

Pandemia por COVID-19 y su repercusión sobre las hospitalizaciones por bronquiolitis en el Centro y Este de España

IntroductionNon-pharmaceutical interventions that have been implemented in southern hemisphere countries because of COVID-19 pandemic declaration in March 2020, have evidenced some unexpected changes in the way of spreading of many other viruses. This study as a part of ECEALHBA's Project, reports the consequences of COVID-19 pandemic over 2020–2021 bronchiolitis epidemic period in the Central and Eastern regions of Spain. MethodMulticenter, observational, descriptive and ambispective study of admitted infants with the diagnosis of bronchiolitis in 16 Spanish hospitals involved in the investigation project. Five epidemic periods previous to COVID-19 pandemic, from 2015 to 2020, were compared with the current one, 2020–2021, in both a qualitative and quantitative manner. ResultsTotal of 4643 infants were admitted to the participating hospitals along the study period. Pandemic season hospital admissions for bronchiolitis were 94.1% lower than in pre-pandemic period. December and January were peak months for bronchiolitis admissions during pre-pandemic period, but September was the peak month during pandemic year. There was a progressive decrease of admissions from this moment until the end of the follow up, in April 2021. Rhinovirus has been the commonest etiology for bronchiolitis in 2020–2021 epidemic period of bronchiolitis. ConclusionsSome of the non-pharmaceutical interventions initiated because of COVID-19 pandemic are probably related to the dramatic decrease of bronchiolitis cases in 2020–2021 season. It would be rewarding to purpose novel research to clarify how these simple interventions can be useful, close to vaccines and antiviral drugs, to achieve the goal of avoiding the spread of respiratory viruses in pediatric population.