Southern Elephant Seals Mirounga Leonina Research Articles

A reconstruction of the marine mammal harvest by the Real Compañía Marítima through the analysis of historical sources (AD 1790–1804)

Humans have altered marine ecosystems over very long-time scales and historical data is often needed to understand the true magnitude of human impacts. The Southwest Atlantic Ocean has a long history of large-scale removal of marine vertebrates due to whaling, sealing, and fishing in the past three centuries. Historical catch records are crucial in assessing the conservation status of these historically over-exploited populations and setting suitable recovery goals. However, several gaps in the history of exploitation of many populations limit our ability to judge recoveries success. This study examines the history of the Spanish fishing company, the Real Compañía Marítima (Royal Maritime Company), and reconstructs its catches of marine mammals in Patagonia and on the north coast of the Río de la Plata. The analysis of a wide range of historical sources reveals that, between the years 1790 and 1804, the Company extracted less than 100 southern right whales Eubalaena australis, some 200,000 South American fur seals Arctocephalus australis and South American sea lions Otaria flavescens, and a few southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina. Although the Company’s whale catch is negligible compared to that of other nations in the same whaling grounds, the amount of fur seals and sea lions removed from the ecosystem deserves attention. This historical survey provides us with the first estimate of the catches made by the Real Compañía Marítima. However, these figures only represent a small part of the extractive activities that took place in the region and further research is encouraged to assess the true dimension of human impacts on Southwest Atlantic ecosystems. The incorporation of retrospective data into ecological studies can be laborious and may have inherent biases, but it also provides valuable information for comprehending modern ecosystems and formulating appropriate conservation plans.

Cephalopod diet of juvenile male southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina at Marion Island, South Indian Ocean

Cephalopod diet of juvenile male southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina at Marion Island, South Indian Ocean

Mercury biomagnification in an Antarctic food web of the Antarctic Peninsula

Under the climate change context, warming Southern Ocean waters may allow mercury (Hg) to become more bioavailable to the Antarctic marine food web (i.e., ice-stored Hg release and higher methylation rates by microorganisms), whose biomagnification processes are poorly documented. Biomagnification of Hg in the food web of the Antarctic Peninsula, one of the world's fastest-warming regions, was examined using carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotope ratios for estimating feeding habitat and trophic levels, respectively. The stable isotope signatures and total Hg (T-Hg) concentrations were measured in Antarctic krill Euphausia superba and several Antarctic predator species, including seabirds (gentoo penguins Pygoscelis papua, chinstrap penguins Pygoscelis antarcticus, brown skuas Stercorarius antarcticus, kelp gulls Larus dominicanus, southern giant petrels Macronectes giganteus) and marine mammals (southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina). Significant differences in δ13C values among species were noted with a great overlap between seabird species and M. leonina. As expected, significant differences in δ15N values among species were found due to interspecific variations in diet-related to their trophic position within the marine food web. The lowest Hg concentrations were registered in E. superba (0.007 ± 0.008 μg g−1) and the highest values in M. giganteus (12.090 ± 14.177 μg g−1). Additionally, a significant positive relationship was found between Hg concentrations and trophic levels (reflected by δ15N values), biomagnifying nearly 2 times its concentrations at each level. Our results support that trophic interaction is the major pathway for Hg biomagnification in Southern Ocean ecosystems and warn about an increase in the effects of Hg on long–lived (and high trophic level) Antarctic predators under climate change in the future.

Dispersion of a southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina to Possession Island, Namibia

Dispersion of a southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina to Possession Island, Namibia

Observational/hydrographic data of the South Atlantic Ocean published as LOD

This article describes the publication of occurrences of Southern Elephant Seals Mirounga leonina (Linnaeus, 1758) as Linked Open Data in two environments (marine and coastal). The data constitutes hydrographic measurements of instrumented animals and observation data collected during censuses between 1990 and 2017. The data scheme is based on the previously developed ontology BiGe-Onto and the new version of the Semantic Sensor Network ontology (SSN). We introduce the network of ontologies used to organize the data and the transformation process to publish the dataset. In the use case, we develop an application to access and analyze the dataset. The linked open dataset and the related visualization tool turned data into a resource that can be located by the international community and thus increase the commitment to its sustainability. The data, coming from Península Valdés (UNESCO World Heritage), is available for interdisciplinary studies of management and conservation of marine and coastal protected areas which demand reliable and updated data.

Validating the use of bulk tissue stable isotope and amino acid δ15N values measured in molted hair and epidermis of elephant seals to assess temporal foraging niche specialization

The degree of dietary generalization versus specialization exhibited by populations can impact their ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. Naturally shed hair and epidermis are easily collected and may provide a suitable substrate for stable isotope analysis to assess trophic niche specialization. Whether fasting influences the isotopic composition of molted tissues has not been assessed. Here, we gauged the validity of using carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope analysis of molted hair and the outermost epidermis as proxies to study the foraging ecology of southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina at Marion Island in the southern Indian Ocean. Similarity in both bulk tissue (δ13C and δ15N) and amino acid (δ15N) isotope values of molted tissues and whiskers known to reflect fasting confirmed that physiological changes associated with fasting influenced hair and epidermis isotope values. We recommend caution when using the isotopic composition of molted hair and epidermis to make ecological inferences regarding diet and/or movement. Despite these limitations, molted hair can be used to detect extreme foraging behaviors, which we show using an extensive data set of hair sampled from marked individuals (n = 331) that hauled out on Marion Island during the 2012-2013 annual pelage molt. Other factors, such as ontogenetic shifts in diet and potential environmental (baseline) isotopic variation, also influence hair δ13C and δ15N values, which complicates the use of isotopic data from molted tissues to assess the temporal consistency of an individuals’ isotopic niche.

Southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina molting at Mauritius Island

Southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina molting at Mauritius Island

First record of a southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) in Sri Lankan waters

An unusual sighting of a juvenile southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), outside its typical range, was recorded off the southern coast of Sri Lanka between 20th November and 20th December 2019. The individual, a male as confirmed by the presence of a prepuce, underwent a catastrophic moult during this 1 month period, following which no further observations were recorded and so it was assumed it returned to sea. This represents the first confirmed sighting of a southern elephant seal, and indeed a phocid, in Sri Lankan waters.

Serological screening for Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. antibodies in southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina from Elephant Island, Antarctica, in 2003 and 2004.

Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. antibodies were surveyed in 35 southern elephant seals (SESs) Mirounga leonina at Elephant Island (South Shetland Islands), western Antarctic peninsula, in the Austral summer of 2003 and 2004. The rose Bengal test and a commercial competitive ELISA (c-ELISA) were used to detect Brucella spp. exposure, and the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) with 22 live serovars was used to determine anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies. We found evidence of Brucella spp. exposure in 3 of 35 (8.6%) SESs tested via the c-ELISA displaying high percentage inhibition (PI), similar to other studies in pinnipeds in which Brucella spp. antibodies have been determined. Two of the 3 positives were pups (PI = 70.4 and 86.6%), while the third was an adult female (PI = 48.8%). The 3 c-ELISA positive SESs were additionally tested via the serum agglutination test but were found to be negative. All individuals were negative for antibodies against 22 Leptospira spp. serovars by MAT. These results contribute to the knowledge and monitoring of zoonotic pathogens with epizootic potential in Southern Ocean pinnipeds. Given the potential impact that pathogens may have on the abundance of wild (sometimes threatened and endangered) populations, constant monitoring and surveillance are required to prevent pathogen spread, particularly under forecast climate change scenarios.

The northernmost haulout site of South American sea lions and fur seals in the western South Atlantic

We present estimates of the seasonal and spatial occupation by pinnipeds of the Wildlife Refuge of Ilha dos Lobos (WRIL), based on aerial photographic censuses. Twenty aerial photographic censuses were analysed between July 2010 and November 2018. To assess monthly differences in the numbers of pinnipeds in the WRIL we used a Generalized Linear Mixed Model. Spatial analysis was carried out using Kernel density analysis of the pinnipeds on a grid plotted along the WRIL. Subadult male South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) were the most abundant pinniped in the WRIL. Potential females of this species were also recorded during half of the census. The maximum number of pinnipeds observed in the WRIL was 304 in September 2018, including an unexpected individual southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), and a high number of South American fur seal yearlings (Arctocephalus australis). However, there was no statistically significant difference in counts between months. In all months analysed, pinnipeds were most often found concentrated in the northern portion of the island, with the highest abundances reported in September. This study confirms the importance of the WRIL as a haulout site for pinnipeds in Brazil, recommends that land research and recreational activities occur in months when no pinnipeds are present, and encourages a regulated marine mammal-based tourism during winter and spring months.

Selective disappearance of frail juveniles: consequences for understanding social dominance in adult male elephant seals

Individual heterogeneity is variation in trait expression observed among individuals of a population. Individual heterogeneity in the pre‐breeder stage of development is of importance given its eventual contribution to the breeding population's overall reproductive performance. Yet most studies do not consider the role of individual heterogeneity in pre‐breeders when investigating population processes. We investigated individual heterogeneity in the survival and recruitment probabilities of pre‐breeding male southern elephant sealsMirounga leoninausing 34 years of data collected at Marion Island. Elephant seals are highly polygynous capital breeders, with few male offspring surviving to compete in breeding events and even fewer breeding successfully. Specifically, we fitted finite‐mixture models with two hidden groups that represented ‘robust’ and ‘frail’ individuals and compared the demographic rates of these groups to that of the population. Survival and recruitment as first‐time subordinate breeders could be distinguished between groups. Survival of both robust and frail pre‐breeders decreased from age 2, whilst differences between groups were maintained (ontogeny processes). Frail pre‐breeders had a much lower survival than the population average, suggesting that frail individuals were preferentially removed from the population (selective disappearance). Differences in recruitment probabilities were apparent from age 5 (earliest recorded age) and increased until age 7, with most recruits comprising robust pre‐breeders. Male pre‐breeders were more likely to be robust at age 2 when born in years with few conspecifics, suggesting that individual heterogeneity was determined, in part, by density‐dependent effects. A population projection model revealed that male breeders of every age class never consisted of more than 5% of frail recruits. Rather, the breeding population increasingly consisted of robust recruits that obtained social dominance with age. We demonstrated that individual heterogeneity in male pre‐breeder demographic rates was present and persistent throughout much of development and determined the proportion of adult males that obtained social dominance.

Local extinction imminent for southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina at their northernmost breeding site, Gough Island—South Atlantic Ocean

The continued decline in the small breeding population of southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina at Gough Island (40°19′S, 9°57′W) over a period of 46 years (1973–2019) signals the likely extirpation of the species at the northernmost extent of its breeding range in the Southern Ocean. The estimated number of births declined from a high (n = 38) in 1975 to a low (n = 2) in 2019, a 95% reduction at an average decrease of 2.15% per annum. The estimated mean time to extinction of this population from a linear regression model is 2 years (95% CI: 0–23 years). This decline is consistent with observed or forecasted population trends of some other marine top predators at the northern extent of their breeding ranges in the Southern Ocean; adding to the prevailing evidence that environmental change is the most plausible hypothesis explaining the range reduction of these marine species limited by a paucity of breeding grounds.

A Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina) in the Gulf of California: Genetic Confirmation of the Northernmost Record to Date

A Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina) in the Gulf of California: Genetic Confirmation of the Northernmost Record to Date

The Genome Assembly and Annotation of the Southern Elephant Seal Mirounga leonina

The southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina is the largest phocid seal and one of the two species of elephant seals. They are listed as ‘least concern’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species 2015. Here, we have assembled the reference genome for M. leonina using the 10× chromium sequencing platform. The final genome assembly of M. leonina was 2.42 Gb long, with a contig N50 length of 54 Mb and a maximum length of 111.6 Mb. The M. leonina genome contained 20,457 predicted protein-coding genes and possessed 41.51% repeated sequences. The completeness of the M. leonina genome was evaluated using benchmarking universal single-copy orthologous genes (BUSCOs): the assembly was highly complete, containing 95.6% of the core set of mammalian genes. The high-quality genomic information on M. leonina will be essential for further understanding of adaptive metabolism upon repeated breath-hold dives and the exploration of molecular mechanisms contributing to its unique biochemical and physiological characteristics. The southern elephant seal genome project was deposited at NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) under BioProject number PRJNA587380.

High mortality rates in a juvenile free-ranging marine predator and links to dive and forage ability.

High juvenile mortality rates are typical of many long‐lived marine vertebrate predators. Insufficient development in dive and forage ability is considered a key driver of this. However, direct links to survival outcome are sparse, particularly in free‐ranging marine animals that may not return to land.In this study, we conduct exploratory investigations toward early mortality in juvenile southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina. Twenty postweaning pups were equipped with (a) a new‐generation satellite relay data tag, capable of remotely transmitting fine‐scale behavioral movements from accelerometers, and (b) a location transmitting only tag (so that mortality events could be distinguished from device failures). Individuals were followed during their first trip at sea (until mortality or return to land). Two analyses were conducted. First, the behavioral movements and encountered environmental conditions of nonsurviving pups were individually compared to temporally concurrent observations from grouped survivors. Second, common causes of mortality were investigated using Cox's proportional hazard regression and penalized shrinkage techniques.Nine individuals died (two females and seven males) and 11 survived (eight females and three males). All but one individual died before the return phase of their first trip at sea, and all but one were negatively buoyant. Causes of death were variable, although common factors included increased horizontal travel speeds and distances, decreased development in dive and forage ability, and habitat type visited (lower sea surface temperatures and decreased total [eddy] kinetic energy).For long‐lived marine vertebrate predators, such as the southern elephant seal, the first few months of life following independence represent a critical period, when small deviations in behavior from the norm appear sufficient to increase mortality risk. Survival rates may subsequently be particularly vulnerable to changes in climate and environment, which will have concomitant consequences on the demography and dynamics of populations.

De novo Assembly and Annotation of the Blood Transcriptome of the Southern Elephant Seal Mirounga leonina from the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica

The southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina is the largest member of the phocid seals and is a highly sexually dimorphic predator at circumpolar regions. In this study, we generated the first high-quality de novo assembly of the blood transcriptome of M. leonina using the Illumina MiSeq platform. A total of 40.5 million raw reads were obtained and assembled using the Oases assembly platform, resulting in 46,445 contigs with an N50 value of 634 bp. We performed functional gene annotations through pathway analyses of the Gene Ontology (GO), Eukaryotic Orthologous Groups (KOG), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) databases. Ortholog comparison revealed that a high proportion of the M. leonina blood transcriptome had significant sequence homology within pinnipeds. M. leonine, a deep and long-diving seal, is routinely exposed to progressive hypoxia during dives. KEGG analyses detected an intact hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) signaling pathway, which is a key metabolism pathway in the adaptive homeostatic responses to hypoxia. In the blood transcriptome, many essential genes involved in innate immunity were detected, which suggests that the blood serves as a host defense modulator against exogenous infections in M. leonina. This genomic resource will be useful for understanding adaptive metabolism upon repeated breath-hold dives and determining the health status of southern elephant seals without the need to sacrifice them in experiments.

“Nose-metrics” of wild southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) males using image analysis and geometric morphometrics

“Nose-metrics” of wild southern elephant seal (<i>Mirounga leonina</i>) males using image analysis and geometric morphometrics

Sighting of a Southern elephant seal &lt;i&gt;Mirounga leonina&lt;/i&gt; in the Toltén River, southern Chile

The Southern elephant seal (SES) is a marine species that can be found at sea throughout the Southern Ocean on most sub-Antarctic islands. An unusual record of a solitary Southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) in freshwater habitat is reported. The seal was found 16 km upstream from the mouth of the Toltén River, in southern Chile (39°9’S; 73°10’W). The individual was classified as a sub-adult male approximately 3 m in length. Potential causes for the unusual presence of the seal in a river include feeding on native estuarine fishes and non-native Chinook salmon or resting. Long lasting resting (5 days) in the Toltén River by the seal may indicate suitable habitat and/or lack of disturbance.

Environmental and physiological determinants of huddling behavior of molting female southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina)

While endotherms can rely on their insulation to reduce heat loss to adapt to cold environments, renewing of fur during molt impairs insulation while they have to perfuse the periphery to support epidermal tissues. The southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina undertakes an annual catastrophic molt while fasting on land in a wet, windy and cold environment. However, southern elephant seals show characteristic aggregation patterns that are predicted to reduce high metabolic costs during the molt. Between 2012 and 2016, 59 female elephant seals were tracked on land during their molt to study their aggregation behavior in relation to molt stage, habitat type and local weather conditions. Infrared thermography and stomach temperature loggers were used to observe variation in body surface and internal temperature in relation to molt stage and aggregation behavior. We found that thermal constraints varied during the molt, with a peak in surface temperature during the mid-stage of the molt. Wallows (mud pools) appear as favorable habitat to aggregate while molting. Indeed, wallows offered a warmer microclimate with greater ground temperature and lower wind speed. Moreover, there was a greater proportion of aggregated seals and larger group size in wallows. These aggregation patterns in wallows were influenced by local weather such that a greater proportion of seals were located in the center of the aggregation, and larger group size occurred during days of unfavorable meteorological conditions. We also observed a higher proportion of seals at mid-stage of molt amongst aggregated seals compared to isolated individuals. This aggregation behavior may reduce the cost of thermogenesis as surface body temperature and stomach temperature were cooler by 1.0 °C and 1.5 °C, respectively, in aggregated compared to isolated seals. As a consequence, huddling behavior may be thermally advantageous for female southern elephant seals during the molt.

Reproductive skipping as an optimal life history strategy in the southern elephant seal, Mirounga leonina.

Intermittent breeding by which organisms skip some current reproductive opportunities in order to enhance future reproductive success is a common life history trade‐off among long‐lived, iteroparous species. The southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina engages in intermediate breeding when body condition is low. While it is anticipated that this strategy may increase the lifetime reproductive output of this species, the conditions under which reproductive skipping are predicted to occur are not clear. Here I develop a dynamic state variable model based on published data that examines when southern elephant seals are predicted to optimally skip reproduction in order to maximize lifetime reproductive output as a function of current body mass, maternal age, and survivorship. I demonstrate that the optimal reproductive strategy for this species can include reproductive skipping, and that the conditions where this is optimal depend on patterns of mass‐dependent adult female survival. I further show that intermittent breeding can increase lifetime reproductive output, and that the magnitude of this benefit increases with the ability of individual animals to replenish depleted body mass through foraging. Finally, I show that when the environment is variable and foraging is reduced in bad years, the benefit of adopting an optimal strategy that includes reproductive skipping increases asymptotically with the frequency of bad years. These results highlight the importance of characterizing the pattern of adult survival in this species, as well as the need to identify other factors that may influence the prevalence and benefits of reproductive skipping.