Southern Communities Research Articles

Invertebrate associations with gastropod shells inhabited by Pagurus­bernhardus (Paguridae) – secondary hard substrate increasing biodiversity­in North Sea soft‐bottom communities

The crustacean Pagurus bernhardus is an abundant hermit crab species in the soft‐bottom benthic communities of the North Sea. The gastropod shells inhabited by the hermit crab were found to provide substrate for a diverse epizoic fauna. In order to describe the epizoan community as well as spatial differences in epizoan communities of the North Sea, hermit crabs were sampled during summer 2001 at five stations in the North Sea. In total, 51 epizoic species with up to 15 species and 427 individuals per crab were found. The most abundant epizoans were obligate associated species such as the polychaete Circeis amoricani paguri, the cnidaria Hydractinia echinata and the crustacean Trypetesa lampas, as well as sessile epizoans also found in hard‐bottom habitats such as balanids Balanus crenatus and Verruca stroemia or free‐living species such as the amphipod Gammaropsis nitida. The epizoic community structure on shells of the stations north of the 50 m contour differs from the southern communities on the Dogger Bank and in the German Bight. The northern stations were dominated by sessile species, whereas a higher proportion of free‐living epizoans occurred at the southern stations. The results are discussed concerning the ecological importance of shells inhabited by hermit crabs as a hard substrate in soft‐bottom habitats.

Reproductive health in rural Malawi: a population‐based survey

Objectives To assess pregnancy outcome, maternal mortality and health‐seeking behaviour in a rural African population and to assess the effects on these of women's education, distance from a health centre and household type.Design Descriptive population‐based study.Setting A rural community in southern Malawi.Population All women living in the catchment area of a rural health centre.Methods Interviews with women in 20,649 households using structured questionnaires.Main outcome measures Pregnancy outcome, the effect of women's education, distance from a health centre and household type on pregnancy outcome, maternal morbidity and estimates of maternal and perinatal mortality.Results Educational level was lower for women than for men. A significant association was found between educational level and fertility. Women aged 45–49 reported an average of six pregnancies with four resulting in currently living children. Successful pregnancy outcome was more likely with increased education and if the woman lived closer to the health centre. Despite living an average of 5 km from the health centre, over 90% of women attended antenatal clinic with a mean of five visits. Assistance at delivery by a trained health care worker was more likely as education increased and was less likely as distance from the health centre increased. Maternal mortality was reported at 413 per 100,000 deliveries (95% CI 144–682). The perinatal mortality rate in this population was estimated at 30 per 1000. An increased perinatal mortality was noted for women who were delivered by a female relative. Perinatal mortality rates were similar for delivery by a traditional birth attendant or a trained nurse–midwife. Education and proximity to the health centre were both associated with improved outcome.Conclusions Many women in this rural community suffer the consequences of high pregnancy loss. Maternal and perinatal mortality are high. Improved education and skilled assistance at delivery can result in improved pregnancy outcome. Proximity of any household to a health centre has an effect on outcomes.

Carbon utilization profiles of microbial communities in southern and central North Sea sediments in relation to environmental variables

We evaluated the relationship between environmental parameters (chlorophylla supply, C/N ratio, redox potential and silt content) and the functional profile of benthic microbial communities by means of community-level physiological profiling (CLPP). Down-core sediment profiles (0–2 cm, 2–5 cm, 5–10 cm) were examined at seven stations in the North Sea, a shallow European shelf sea. The stations reflected an environmental gradient from the coastal to the offshore area. Microbial communities were clearly separated by site, with the clearest differences observed between German Bight versus the Dogger Bank. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) followed by a Monte Carlo permutation test showed that differences in CLPP were significantly related to organic carbon supply, oxygen conditions and silt content. Differences in specific carbon source utilization were related to potential functional changes, such as increased amino acid in sediments receiving fresh organic matter input. Overall, the approach proved successful for testing the significance of environmental conditions on microbial communities across a broad geographical region, and should prove valuable for defining both the sampling design and research questions for further studies.

The Least Sexist Society? Perspectives on Gender, Change and Violence among southern African San*

This article refutes essentialist popular and academic discourses revolving around the presumption of primordial gender equality and harmony among the San of southern Africa. These discourses continue to ignore the devastating gendered consequences of land and cultural dispossession, poverty and the large-scale militarisation of the San. The discussion focuses on contemporary gender-based violence among San communities against the background of those socio-economic, political and cultural influences that have fundamentally altered gender relations among southern African San. The central argument presented is that, relatively recently, and as a result of specific social and historical circumstances, distinct and hierarchically organised perceptions of 'men' and 'women' have begun to establish themselves to varying degrees among southern African San communities. It is argued that violence between San men and women has been reproduced and exacerbated by the San people's re-appropriation of gender as a significant social category, which is, however, highly ambiguous and contradictory. The comparative analysis employed in this paper draws on recent field research among three major communities of San, at Schmidts-drift in the Northern Cape (South Africa), Ghanzi district in western Botswana, and Tsumkwe West, the area formerly known as 'Western Bushmanland', in north-eastern Namibia. In conclusion, the paper takes up again the cultural discourse of 'traditional' gender equality and harmony, and asks how this, within the wider context of contemporary cultural reclamation, may become a strategic, although contested, tool to address contemporary gender concerns among San people.

Lukas D. Tsitsipis. A linguistic anthropology of praxis and language shift: Arvanítika (Albanian) and Greek in contact. (Oxford Studies in Language Contact.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Pp. xi, 163. Hb. $78.00.

Tsitsipis's valuable and sophisticated linguistic-anthropological study reports on research conducted over a number of years in two Albanian-speaking communities in southern Greece, Spáta in the district of Attika, and Kiriáki in the district of Biotia. These towns historically spoke Arvanítika, a Tosk dialect of Albanian. Although both communities date at least to the fourteenth century, they contrast sharply in that the first is very close to Athens, while the second is in a mountainous, isolated area. Kiriáki has a younger generation of fluent Arvanítika speakers, but language shift to Greek is advanced in both communities – shaped, according to Tsitsipis, not only by economic changes involving improved transportation and communication, the mechanization of agriculture, and urbanization, which have accelerated since the 1950s, but also by the ideological formations associated with the consolidation of the Greek nation-state, dating from the mid-19th century. The latter process focused symbolically on the exaltation of the heritage of the Greeks, and especially of their language. While adding considerable nuance to our understanding of the situation, Tsitsipis confirms the findings of Eric Hamp (1978:161–62; quoted by Tsitsipis on p. 11) that Arvanítika speakers “unflinchingly and happily accept the axioms that Greek is the oldest culture, Greek literature the first … and the Greek language the oldest, the richest … the only one with a true grammar.

Explaining Species Richness from Continents to Communities: The Time-for-Speciation Effect in Emydid Turtles

Speciation is the process that ultimately generates species richness. However, the time required for speciation to build up diversity in a region is rarely considered as an explanation for patterns of species richness. We explored this “time‐for‐speciation effect” on patterns of species richness in emydid turtles. Emydids show a striking pattern of high species richness in eastern North America (especially the southeast) and low diversity in other regions. At the continental scale, species richness is positively correlated with the amount of time emydids have been present and speciating in each region, with eastern North America being the ancestral region. Within eastern North America, higher regional species richness in the southeast is associated with smaller geographic range sizes and not greater local species richness in southern communities. We suggest that these patterns of geographic range size variation and local and regional species richness in eastern North America are caused by glaciation, allopatric speciation, and the time‐for‐speciation effect. We propose that allopatric speciation can simultaneously decrease geographic range size and increase regional diversity without increasing local diversity and that geographic range size can determine the relationship between α, β, and γ diversity. The time‐for‐speciation effect may act through a variety of processes at different spatial scales to determine diverse patterns of species richness.

Explaining species richness from continents to communities: the time-for-speciation effect in emydid turtles.

Speciation is the process that ultimately generates species richness. However, the time required for speciation to build up diversity in a region is rarely considered as an explanation for patterns of species richness. We explored this "time-for-speciation effect" on patterns of species richness in emydid turtles. Emydids show a striking pattern of high species richness in eastern North America (especially the southeast) and low diversity in other regions. At the continental scale, species richness is positively correlated with the amount of time emydids have been present and speciating in each region, with eastern North America being the ancestral region. Within eastern North America, higher regional species richness in the southeast is associated with smaller geographic range sizes and not greater local species richness in southern communities. We suggest that these patterns of geographic range size variation and local and regional species richness in eastern North America are caused by glaciation, allopatric speciation, and the time-for-speciation effect. We propose that allopatric speciation can simultaneously decrease geographic range size and increase regional diversity without increasing local diversity and that geographic range size can determine the relationship between alpha, beta, and gamma diversity. The time-for-speciation effect may act through a variety of processes at different spatial scales to determine diverse patterns of species richness.

Culture Cannot Be Divorced From Psychiatric Care

Culture Cannot Be Divorced From Psychiatric Care

Community structure, survival and mortality factors in arctic populations of Eupontania leaf gallers

We studied survival, mortality factors, and community structure of nine species of leaf-galling sawflies, Eupontania spp., living on ten willow species (Salix spp.) at six sites on the Russian arctic tundra. The sawfly species represented two different gall types: the viminalis-type, which forms pea-shaped galls on the underside of leaf blades, and the vesicator-type, which forms bean-shaped galls on both sides of the leaf blade. Gall communities in the northernmost site had only one parasitoid species, but up to six parasitoids were found at the southernmost site. Inquiline parasitoids were encountered only in the two southern sites. Survival of the larvae varied between 20.0 and 82.8% among galler species at different sites. Parasitoids were the most important mortality factor for the sawflies. They caused mortality of 7.8-65.4%, depending on galler species and site, and it was highest in the northernmost site. Plant-specific mortality varied from 1.7 to 28.4% by galler species and it tended to decrease towards the north. Mortality from parasitoids was greater in the vesicator-type gallers than in the viminalis-type gallers. The total mortality caused by parasitoids in the arctic communities does not appear to differ from that in the diverse southern communities of Eupontania in Middle Europe, Scandinavia and North America, despite the assemblage having only a few members in the Arctic. The largest difference between the southern and the northern communities was the lack of inquiline parasitoids in the north. Our data do not support the hypothesis that abiotic, rather than biotic, factors would be more important in determining the abundance of populations of herbivorous insects in the harsh arctic environment.

Promoting Prepackaged Drugs for Prompt and Appropriate Treatment of Febrile Illnesses in Rural Nigerian Communities

Among the strategies being tested to improve prompt and appropriate treatment of febrile illness, especially malaria, in young children is the prepackaging of antimalarial drugs in easy to use daily dosages. A TDR-sponsored study in three rural communities in southern Nigeria tested a delivery system for prepackaged chloroquine and cotrimoxazole for children aged 6 months to 6 years. A variety of distributors were trained including village health workers (VHWs), patent medicine vendors (PMVs), and health clinic staff. These distributors also performed community health education. During a 12-month study period, 3954 units of project medicines were sold. While VHWs accounted for the majority of distributors and as a group sold the largest proportion of drugs overall, health staff sold the highest number on average. A follow-up survey found a 25 percent increase in the use of antimalarials over baseline, almost all of which could be attributed to sales of the project chloroquine. While there was also an increased use of cotrimoxazole over baseline, the contribution of project drugs was less. PMVs remained the most common source of treatment both before and after intervention, and there was a small but significant rise in the proportion who sought care from VHWs. While 93 percent of respondents sought care for their sick child within 24 hours, there was significantly more delay among those whose first choice was a government or private clinic. Factors that were positively associated with use of project drugs included reports that the child had a high temperature and seeking care from a VHW or PMV. The results indicate that it is possible to gain a significant market share for prepackaged drugs using locally available distribution channels. The value lies in using a variety of channels, both ones that are centrally located and others that are accessible to scattered, outlying communities that are poorly served by orthodox medicine.

Caring—The Missing C in Teacher Education

Despite the lack of adequate resources, African American communities operated good schools for their children long before the 1954 Brown decision and school desegregation beginning in the mid-1950s. Anderson (1988) reported that African Americans in some Southern communities established and operated their own schools during the slave period and long before the missionary societies and the Freedmen's Bureau began their efforts following the Civil War. During the past two decades, a number of researchers have reported on the quality of segregated schools for African American children that operated during the late-19th and the 20th century (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Foster, 1997; Morris & Morris, 2000; Walker, 1996). Walker (2000) reported that four themes emerged among valued schools in the South from 1935 to 1969: (a) exemplary teachers, (b) curriculum and extracurricular activities, (c) parental support, and (d) the leadership of the school principal. The first three themes are consistent with those from the study dealt with in this article, Creating Caring and Nurturing Educational Environments for African American Children (Morris & Morris, 2000). Walker (2000) described valued schools as those held in high esteem by their communities because they exhibited the four positive attributes that enabled them to provide a good education for African American children, despite the inequities in funding that resulted in inadequate physical plants, equipment, and instructional resources. Trenholm High School, the focus of this article, was one of those valued schools. METHOD In this case study of one African American school community in a small Alabama town, a variety of data were collected and analyzed to identify the factors the community perceived as making its school a good school. Alumni, teachers, administrators, parents, and community members who were associated with public schools in this community from 1909 to 1980 responded to a questionnaire and interviews. Many respondents served in dual or triple roles. One hundred nineteen persons completed a 27-item questionnaire, and 34 interviews were conducted. Many primary and secondary documents, that is, school board minutes, accreditation reports, local newspapers, students' handbooks, school registers, and personal documents were used to develop the historical account of the school community as well as to confirm the themes that emerged in questionnaire and interview data. The segregated African American school (Grades 1-12) was established in 1877 by the African American community and was closed by court order in 1969. ANALYSIS Frequency distributions were constructed and computed for 4 of the 27 items included in the questionnaire. These 4 items related to selected quality issues that were constructed using a Likert-type scale. The remaining 23 items were primarily open-ended questions. The research team used a variation of Strauss's (1987) constant comparative method of data analysis to analyze the data by searching for categories related to the research questions as well as other themes that emerged from the data. Triangulation of data obtained from primary and secondary documents, interviews, and questionnaires was employed to formulate final themes for the study. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Respondents identified three major factors that contributed to their school's being a good school: (a) caring, competent, and committed teachers; (b) the range of school programs and activities; and (c) parental and community support and involvement. Graduates indicated that their favorite teachers maintained orderly classrooms (Walker, 1996), cared about the students (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996), were fair and were competent in their subject areas (Foster, 1997), made practical applications of subject matter (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996), had high expectations of students (Walker, 1996), and made learning fun. …

Palaeoenvironmental significance of the mammalian faunas of Italy since the Pliocene

AbstractThe evolution of mammalian communities is a significant tool for reconstructing past environments and climate. In this paper, a palaeoecological and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction based on the study of the Italian mammal faunas ranging from Middle Pliocene to the Holocene is presented using the cenogram method and quantification of temperatures based on arvicolid species richness. These analyses reveal open and arid conditions during glacial periods and less open and more humid conditions during interglacials, with some differences between north and central–south Italy. Northern and Southern communities reflect similar trends in the evolution of palaeoenvironments and in the variation of the temperatures, but differences in estimated temperatures, which indicate a more temperate climate for southern Italy throughout the period, are considered here. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Higher basal cortisol predicts verbal memory loss in postmenopausal women: Rancho Bernardo Study.

In animals, higher endogenous or exogenous corticosteroids cause neuronal dysfunction, damage, and loss, especially in the hippocampus. In humans, high cortisol levels have been linked to memory impairment. To prospectively examine the relation between morning basal cortisol level and change in cognitive performance during an average follow-up of 2 years. Longitudinal cohort. Geographic community in southern California. Between 1984 and 1987, blood for basal morning cortisol was obtained along with pertinent medical, behavioral, and physical covariates from 749 post-menopausal women, mean age 72 years, who were not taking corticosteroids or postmenopausal hormones. Cognitive function was assessed in 502 women in the period from 1988 to 1991 and repeated in 136 women in the period from 1991 to 1993. In both age- and multiply adjusted linear regression models, higher baseline cortisol was a significant predictor of worsened category fluency. No other cognitive domain tested was related to cortisol. These results support the hypothesis that subtle dysregulation of cortisol axis is related to memory loss. Interventions that block this pathway may provide new therapeutic options to prevent cognitive decline.

Also Chosen: Jews in the Imagination and Life of a Black Sanctified Church

"The Church," an unaffiliated sanctified community, was founded in Philadelphia between World Wars I and II by participants in the Great Migration of Blacks from the rural South. Generally lacking in specialized labor skills, they arrived in Philadelphia at a time when industry was shifting to the suburbs. Founding members who referred to each other as "saints" settled in the inner city, and most worked for, or were clients of, Jews. Yet, in spite of the middleman role of Jews in their community, the saints shared positive sentiments toward Jews, invoking them as role models of success.This article investigates the subversion of potential anti‐Semitism by assessing the interplay of sociohistorical conditions of urban migration with the belief in chosenness held by the saints. For the founding saints, salvation came through Jesus Christ; but it also came by the law, which they interpreted to include selected Levitical laws. Thus, they believed that they were effectively "grafted" into a contractual relationship with God, similar to the covenant God had with ancient Israel. Like the Jews, the saints saw themselves as chosen, and through compliance with divine law they would be blessed in every aspect of life.Being chosen was also associated with holiness effected by separation from "The World." This socially distanced the saints—already physically distanced from their southern communities—from the larger Black community that could have provided Black role models. Jews, who were visibly successful, filled this gap. Feeling just as chosen as Jews, the saints harbored less anti‐Semitic resentment. As both groups shared the same love and bounty of the law, the boundaries between the saints and "Jews as other" were blurred.

SPECIES DIVERSITY AND COMPOSITION OF DUNG BEETLE (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEOIDEA) ASSEMBLAGES IN NORTH AMERICA

AbstractData from 18 studies carried out on dung beetles from temperate North America (north of 25 ° latitude) are compared to verify the existence of some geographical pattern in the variation of three parameters: (1) species number, (2) taxonomic composition, and (3) number of introduced species. Southern localities are characterized by a larger number of species and a significantly higher number of scarabaeine species than northern localities (only southern communities located inside the Chihuahuan desert do not conform to this pattern). To explain the latitudinal pattern in faunistic composition and number of species, historical factors are postulated. Foreign species of the tribe Aphodiini seem to be more frequent in the northern localities where more aphodiine native species occur. In contrast, foreign species of the subfamily Scarabaeinae are not more frequent in the southern localities with a greater number of native scarabaeine species. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the more diverse assemblages of native dung beetle are more resistant to invasion by foreign species.

Antenatal and perinatal predictors of infant mortality in rural Malawi

BACKGROUNDThe slow pace in the reduction of infant mortality in sub-Saharan Africa has partially been attributed to the epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. To facilitate early interventions, antenatal...

Essay: Rediscovering The Social Determinants Of Health

Essay: Rediscovering The Social Determinants Of Health

Distribution of serum apolipoproteins A-I and B and lipoprotein(a) in European elderly: The SENECA study

The purpose of this study is to describe sex and geographic differences in apolipoproteins (apo) A-I and B and lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] concentrations in elderly Europeans. Subjects were 2164 elderly participants of the SENECA study from different regions of Europe. Sera for apo A-I, apo B, and Lp(a) measurement were available for 1703 individuals. In men, mean values ranged from 1.38 to 1.79 g/l for apo A-I, 1.03–1.36 g/l for apo B, and 0.26–0.67 g/l for Lp(a). In women, mean values ranged from 1.54 to 1.98, 1.20–1.51, and 0.26–0.68 g/l for apo A-I, apo B, and Lp(a), respectively. A comparison of northern (Norway, Denmark, Netherlands), middle (France, Switzerland), and southern (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece) communities showed a less atherogenic profile in the south, including lower LDL cholesterol, apo B, TC/HDL cholesterol ratio, and apoB/apo A-I ratio. Men, but not women, also had significantly higher HDL cholesterol and apo A-I concentrations in the South. Paradoxically, Lp(a) concentrations were generally high among all elderly and were significantly higher in the southern communities. These data show that the elderly in Europe are very heterogeneous with respect to plasma lipoproteins, including apo A-I, apo B, and Lp(a).

Resolution of the pathways of poliovirus type 1 transmission during an outbreak.

An outbreak of poliomyelitis with 20 cases occurred in Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank from October 1987 to October 1988. The wild type 1 poliovirus associated with the outbreak was most closely related to viruses found in the Nile Delta. The epidemiologic links among patients involved in the outbreak and patients with community-acquired infections during the outbreak were inferred from the evolutionary relationships among isolates of the outbreak virus. Complete VP1 sequences (906 nucleotides) were determined for 12 clinical and 4 sewage isolates. A total of 58 nucleotide differences were found among the 16 isolates; 74% of all substitutions were synonymous third-position transitions. An evolutionary tree, representing both the pathways of VP1 sequence evolution and the inferred chains of virus transmission during the outbreak, was constructed under the assumption that each substitution had occurred only once. The combined epidemiologic and molecular data suggest that a single founder strain was introduced into Israel from the vicinity of Gaza in the fall of 1987. Poliovirus circulation was apparently localized to southern communities during the winter and spread north by the following summer into the Hadera subdistrict of Israel, where it radiated via multiple chains of transmission into other communities in northern Israel and the West Bank. The close sequence matches (>99%) between clinical and sewage isolates from the same communities confirm the utility of environmental sampling as a tool for monitoring wild poliovirus circulation.

Possessing the Self: Caribbean Identities in Zora Neale Hurston's Tell My Horse

Zora Neale Hurston's leap beyond national boundaries in her 1938 book of Caribbean folklore, Tell My Horse, indicates her cross-cultural interest in identity politics at the beginning of World War II. Unfortunately, much of what Hurston had to say about the international political arena in the late 1930s and the 1940s was excised from her autobiography and continues to be marginalized in her canon because many critics assume that Hurston was mainly a novelist and folklorist, not a political analyst (Hemenway 248), and those critics who do address Hurston's political orientation often find her comments consistent with her reactionary [1] Hurston's interest in Caribbean history and religion, however, can be read as an intriguing international political gesture. Situated among descriptive ethnography, political commentary, and colorful travelogue, Tell My Horse, is both generically and politically ambiguous. [2] Hurston's politics are particularly challenging because she praises the nineteen-year A merican occupation of Haiti in her section on Politics and Personalities in Haiti--an imperialist political stance that seems at odds with her sincere anthropological interest in the culture of Haiti and with her academic training under Franz Boas. [3] As a black American ethnographer working on the cultures of the Caribbean, Hurston seems caught between defending the U.S. imperial of Haiti and simultaneously critiquing it by highlighting spiritual possession of Haitian voodoo rituals as a strategy of resistance to colonial politics. The resulting tension between an imperial nationalism articulated explicitly within the political context of American occupation and the cultural, anthropological discourse of Hurston's observations on voodoo leads to an unresolved dialectic in Tell My Horse. This contradiction is instructive, however, because it reveals the construction of a national Other as an intensely complex and always ambiguous task which ultimately mirrors the culture and politics of the ethnographer more than that of her subjects. Because Hurston subtly subverts her mainstream, public, pro-U.S. discourse with her comments on Haitian cultural practices, voodoo in Hurston's work emerges as a subversive, international political gesture that helps to produce a global trans-Caribbean space. Hurston's focus on voodoo is indeed political, for in the figuration of we find the connection between the material and spiritual history of trans-Caribbean cultures. These cultures are marked by the centrality of slavery and the mutation of cultural memories shared by West African, Caribbean, and Black Southern communities. [4] Historical Specters of United States Imperialism At the time Hurston wrote Tell My Horse, Caribbean identities were perceived by Americans as exotic others. When Hurston visited and Haiti in 1936 and 1937, she came at the end of the nineteen-year occupation of Haiti (1915-1934), an effort by the U.S. to ensure military dominance in the Caribbean and to civilize Caribbean nations that seemed to lack good self-government and democratic values. As historian Hans Schmidt explains, the international political reason for occupying Haiti was to prevent a German attack during World War 1, because Germany's naval power was considered a threat to American hegemony. Schmidt argues that, largely because of this postulated military danger, United States troops occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, the Virgin Islands, and parts of Cuba in 1915, 1916, and 1917, thereby completing the American garrisoning of the Greater Antilles with the exception of British Jamaica (9). Ensuring American military dominance went hand in hand with the political missionary id eal of spreading liberal democracy. Schmidt cites Woodrow Wilson's remarks about teaching South American republics to 'elect good men' and his frequent insistence that the United States had a moral responsibility to promote constitutional, democratic government in the Caribbean area (10). …