Southern Chilean Patagonia Research Articles

Diagnosis of the coastal management model in Chile: The island and the sea of Chiloé governance

The aim of the study described here was to gain a better understanding of the cause of problems in southern Chile by critically analyzing the governance of the coastal areas of the island and the sea of Chiloé. Chiloé is the main island of the homonymous archipelago located in southern Chilean Patagonia. A strategic diagnosis was carried out by studying the ten subdivisions of the political-administrative system that compose the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Decalogue. The results demonstrate that conflicts in Chiloé follow a strongly centralized state model, which tends to prioritize economic development over the socio-ecological and cultural complexity of the coast and disregarding climate change effects and the relationship between ecosystem services and human well-being. In the last five years, some advances have been made in the constitutional process and decentralization objectives, suggesting an improvement in Chiloe’s coastal management.

Contextualizing carnivores illegal hunting and opportunities for livestock-predator coexistence from nonlethal practices and ranchers' attitudes

Illegal hunting is a pervasive menace for many carnivore species in livestock-wildlife shared lands. Carnivore conservation under such socio-ecological context demands a comprehensive understanding of hunting drivers as well as alternatives for problem resolution. To contribute overcoming retaliation against carnivores we developed a holistic approach to address ranchers' non-compliance by understanding together: the context, magnitude, effectiveness, and motivations underlying illegal hunting. We surveyed sheep ranches across southern Chilean Patagonia where culpeo fox, chilla fox and puma cooccur and prey upon sheep. Sheep depredation occurred in 85 % ranches, accounting for 3.5 % of total holdings. Other sources of sheep mortality emerged equally sizeable or even higher than predation. Culpeo fox was the main predator across the region, and the most persecuted. Although hunting was significantly related to its perceived effectiveness, livestock guardian dogs conversely were asserted as the most effective tool for protecting the herds. Ranches where hunting is applied suffered significantly more predation than those where LGDs are deployed. Personal norms, perception towards carnivores, damage levels and ranchers' characteristics significantly related to hunting likelihood, yet their effects varied between species. Our approach advances in demonstrating clear opportunities for livestock-carnivores coexistence arising from a comprehensive understanding of the full context of the predation-retaliation problem, and the multiple drivers of hunting in a species-by-species basis. Such opportunities lie fundamentally in acknowledging all sources of livestock loss, the encouragement to adopt LGDs, and fostering pro-carnivore attitudes based on the ecological benefits they provide in rangelands.

Burden of rare earth elements and trace elements in feathers of magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) from the southern Chilean Patagonia

Patagonia is one of the last pristine regions on the southern hemisphere. The impact of rare earth element (REEs) and trace elements (TEs) in this region have received little attention. The main goal was to assess REEs burden in feathers of adult magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). Sampling was performed at Magdalena Island of the Chilean Patagonia during the austral summer of 2011. Multi-elemental determination of 16 REEs and 24 TEs was performed with ICP-MS. The levels of REEs, TEs, and stable isotopes (δ15N, δ13C, and δ34S) were measured to assess the factors that condition the avian exposure to environmental contaminants. The results showed an increase of the levels of REEs and TEs from the calamus to the feather's tip. In the whole feather, the highest levels corresponded to Ce, which exhibited more than two order of magnitude than Lu and Tm levels. Similar to other penguin species, magellanic penguins can be vectors of REEs and metals in remote regions. Stable isotopes revealed that trophic ecology may influence some of the element concentrations in feathers of magellanic penguins, an issue that requires deeper attention.

Spatio‐temporal patterns of ichthyoplankton in southern Chilean Patagonia: β‐diversity and associated environmental factors

AbstractFjords play an important role in biological productivity worldwide but are vulnerable to climate/anthropogenic effects. Chilean Patagonia (41°S–55°S) is one of the largest fjord ecosystems in the world, characterized by a complex geography with highly heterogeneous hydrographic conditions and a permanent input from oceanic water mass, both of which influence the ichthyoplankton distributional patterns. In this study, we analysed the distributional patterns of ichthyoplankton and its diversity during austral spring from 1996, 2009 and 2019 in the southern Chilean fjords (47°S–54°S). The area shows important latitudinal gradients of sea surface temperature (from 15°C to 5°C), fjord‐ocean variability in salinity (from 23 to 33) and water column temperature (3°C to 9°C). Spatial (but not temporal) variations in the composition and abundance of ichthyoplankton were recorded, caused mainly by differences in the abundance of larval Sprattus fuegensis, Maurolicus australis and Sebastes oculatus. Richness was higher on continental shelf and the lowest nearby fjord's head and ice fields. At the spatial scale, β‐diversity showed an increased species replacement (turnover) across areas, suggesting an important role of environmental conditions (e.g., salinity and water stratification) on the larval fish structure in this region. Ordination analysis indicates that changes in salinity and temperature, caused by ice melting, is the main environmental factor influencing the abundance of larval Thysanopsetta naresi (1996), Cataetyx messieri (2009) and Bathylagichthys parini (2019). Finally, this study highlights the importance of the conservation and protection of the Chilean Patagonia and monitoring ichthyoplankton communities, which are vital biomarkers of ecosystem health.

Committing to the Antarctic: values, ecological beliefs, and social identity in national perception

ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to analyse the role of a perceived value that may result from identification with the Antarctic region the identity that results from association with the Chilean claim to that territory, and adherence to various ecological beliefs that may bear on a perception of responsibility in the care and protection of Antarctica, by inhabitants of southern Chilean Patagonia. Three general population studies (n1 = 218), (n2 = 401), (n3 = 260) measured what were termed Antarctic values, Antarctic Social Identity (ASI), ecological beliefs, and perceived responsibility for Antarctic care and protection. The first study showed the importance of social identification as a mediating variable between the attributed Antarctic value and the perception of responsibility, showing that the identity variable played a fundamental role in the phenomenon of perceived responsibility. The second study compares three cities that formally share the ‘Antarctic social identity’ label (a sense of belonging to the group of cities linked to the Antarctic). This study reveals that, despite sharing this social category, the orientation related to custodial behaviour towards Antarctica is also linked to other socio-identity variables. Here we refer to all the psychological and social variables involved in the process that leads to feeling part of one social identity; that is, identifying with a group of people with whom one shares, for example, the place where one lives. The third study compares two generations of adults (‘young’ and ‘mature’) and confirms that the older group shows a pattern of social responsibility that considers identity variables more profoundly. These results are discussed within the context of the importance of understanding the role of these variables in attitudes towards the Antarctic region at a time when, from both political and environmental perspectives, opportunities arise for inhabitants living close to this territory to reconsider their roles.

Predicting Patagonian Landslides: Roles of Forest Cover and Wind Speed

AbstractDense tree stands and high wind speeds characterize the temperate rainforests of southern Chilean Patagonia, where landslides frequently strip hillslopes of soils, rock, and biomass. Assuming that wind loads on trees promote slope instability, we explore the role of forest cover and wind speed in predicting landslides with a hierarchical Bayesian logistic regression. We find that higher crown openness and wind speeds credibly predict higher probabilities of detecting landslides regardless of topographic location, though much better in low‐order channels and on midslope locations than on open slopes. Wind speed has less predictive power in areas that were impacted by tephra fall from recent volcanic eruptions, while the influence of forest cover in terms of crown openness remains.

Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr. in southern Chilean Patagonia and its local environmental governance implications

Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr. in southern Chilean Patagonia and its local environmental governance implications

Phytochemical Screening and Antioxidant Activity of Seven Native Species Growing in the Forests of Southern Chilean Patagonia.

The genus Nothofagus is one of the most abundant in the subantarctic Patagonian forests. Five species inhabit these ecosystems, three evergreen (Nothofagus betuloides, Nothofagus dombeyi, and Nothofagus nitida) and two deciduous (Nothofagus pumilio and Nothofagus antarctica). This is the first report on the levels of secondary metabolites and the antioxidant capacity of Patagonian tree species growing in natural environments. The aim of this work was to carry out a phytochemical screening, to determine the antioxidant capacity, the sun protection factor, and the α-glucosidase and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of foliar extracts of the five previous species. Besides, Aristotelia chilensis and Berberis microphylla, two species of Patagonian shrubs growing in the same forests, were used as reference. N. dombeyi was the Nothofagus with the best antioxidant capacity. B. microphylla differed from all studied species. Moreover, the Nothofagus was split into two groups. N. betuloides and N. dombeyi are the most similar species to A. chilensis. The α-glucosidase was completely inhibited by all studied extracts. Furthermore, N. antarctica, N. pumilio, and N. nitida inhibited about 70% of the tyrosinase activity. All the results found in this study for the species of the genus Nothofagus support further research on their potential beneficial properties for human health.

Genetic diversity and kinship relationships in one of the largest South American fur seal (Arctocephalus australis) populations of the Pacific Ocean

AbstractThe genetic diversity of populations is the basis for individual fitness and potential adaptability to environmental changes. The South American fur seal (Arctocephalus australis) is a pinniped species that is widely distributed along the southern cone of South America. However, two distinct populations have evolved: the Northern Pacific/Peruvian population and the Southern Pacific/Atlantic population. One of the main breeding colonies of the Southern Pacific/Atlantic population is located on Guafo Island, in southern Chilean Patagonia. This breeding colony represents the closest reproductive population to the remote Peruvian group. Therefore, our study aimed to determine whether the Guafo colony may potentially facilitate gene flow, contribute new alleles, and increase genetic variability of the Peruvian populations, thereby linking the Northern and Southern Pacific populations for the species. In this study, species‐specific microsatellite markers were developed to genetically characterize Guafo Island's South American fur seal population. Our results confirm that the Guafo colony is a panmictic population with evidence of lack of genetic structure. Further, our results indicate that most individuals are unrelated and that half‐siblings are rare, suggesting that polygyny in this species is less frequent than previously thought. Finally, based on the identification of multiple pairs of full siblings, we also present the first genetic evidence of twins in South American fur seals. These attributes suggest that the Guafo colony is a large, panmictic population, which could act as a potential genetic reservoir, and ultimately assist in linking two genetically distinct populations.

First reports of short-term temporal variations in crustacean species richness in north Patagonian coastal temporary pools

Abstract Temporary pools are freshwater bodies of significant interest due to their high species diversity, and the colonization and extinction processes observed at temporal scales. The aim of the present study was to perform a short-term ecological comparison in a group of shallow temporary pools in northern Chilean Patagonia in two periods, August and September 2018. The results revealed marked differences in terms of species richness in the study pools at different conductivities and chlorophyll a concentrations. The dominant species was the calanoid copepod Boeckella gracilis Daday, 1902, while the presence of the rare Anostracan Branchinecta rocaensis Cohen, 1982 was reported in conditions of low chlorophyll a and low conductivity. The community was studied using co-occurrence null models that revealed the absence of structured patterns in species associations, and the presence of niche overlap, with many repeated species that have a similar ecological niche. The present results are identical with observations from temporary pools in southern Chilean Patagonia.

Photobiology of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera in the land-terminating glacier fjord Yendegaia (Tierra del Fuego): A look into the future?

The channel and fjord region of southern Chilean Patagonia hosts giant kelp forests (Macrocystis pyrifera) that have little known site-specific responses to diverse physical gradients. In this study, the functionality of the bio-optical, morphological and biochemical features of the kelps, that determine their light trapping and acclimation, were studied along a gradient of varying turbidity and light conditions at the land-terminating glacier of fjord Yendegaia in the Beagle Channel. These habitats are marked by glacial retreat, and M. pyrifera has successfully colonized new areas due to the effects of warming. Results indicated that under a sharp gradient of turbidity and light availability, the kelps have adapted shading characteristics. The photobiological traits (e.g. light absorption, pigment concentration, photochemistry and blade optics) of algae from depths between 6 and 13 m varied in relation to the degree of turbidity along the fjord. However, these populations did not show obvious intra-thallus variation along the longitudinal profile e.g. blades located at different depths showed relatively similar acclimation potential to the prevailing light field. Only basal sporophylls showed general differences in comparison with the vegetative fronds. Otherwise, the high phenolic (phlorotannin) content, which was reflected in the massive presence of intracellular physodes, suggests that these organisms could be biochemically well-equipped to cope with changes in physical conditions or the presence of herbivore invertebrates (e.g. sea urchins).

Hydro-morphological characteristics and recent changes of a nearly pristine river system in Chilean Patagonia: The Exploradores river network

Fluvial systems provide multiple life-supporting functions, but their values are affected by a range of anthropogenic disturbances. Hydromorphology is used as a conceptual framework for assessing the status of fluvial systems and design river restoration strategies but is rarely applied to nearly pristine environments. This paper presents one of the first assessments of river characteristics and changes in the Aysen Region, an area in southern Chilean Patagonia. The analysis of multitemporal satellite images allowed to define key patterns related to river morphology of the Exploradores river network. The Exploradores basin experienced only limited and recent human disturbances, and fluvial changes are related almost only to natural climatic or geomorphological processes. The river experienced moderate reduction of active channel width and braiding index over the past 70 years. The basin represents a suitable site to study fluvial processes and dynamics in nearly reference conditions, and changes due to the likely increase of human activities and disturbances in the near future.

Satellite-derived mapping of kelp distribution and water optics in the glacier impacted Yendegaia Fjord (Beagle Channel, Southern Chilean Patagonia)

Giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera is a brown alga with extensive global distribution, however, recent evidence suggests that its dynamics presents high degree of regional variability. In southern Chilean fjord region, largely unexplored kelp forests are currently being threatened by global change and human impacts. High-resolution satellite (Sentinel-2) imagery was used to describe temporal and spatial distribution patterns of kelp beds in Yendegaia Fjord (Beagle Channel) using Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA), and to characterize water optical gradients of this habitat strongly influenced by river runoff from a melting glacier. The suitability of SMA for kelp classification was contrasted with other vegetation indices (NDVI, EVI, FAI). Validation was made using drone aerial photographs of kelp canopies. Different analysis tools resulted in up to 35% difference in kelp coverage estimation. The overall accuracy (66–82%) of kelp classification followed an order FAI < EVI < NDVI < SMA. Omission error of SMA and lower coincidence with vegetation indices occurred in pixels with low kelp pixel abundance (<0.50). Based on SMA, the lowest kelp abundance was observed in the river mouth with high turbidity, increasing towards the Beagle Channel. The highest kelp abundance was observed in late summer, but otherwise no clear seasonal patterns could be observed. Water turbidity presented both spatial and seasonal variation. Strong particle sedimentation (leading to light attenuation, interference with remote detection of kelps, and even to their detachment due to substrate quality) and tidal fluctuations in glacier-impacted fjord-type environments can be identified as key features affecting both the kelp population dynamics as well as their remote sensing. Also, low sun elevation at high latitudes in mid winter produces uncertainties in image analyses. In all, the remote sensing approach used in the present study can be regarded as a useful tool to map and monitor kelps forests from a remote region.

First report of cestode infection in the crustacean Artemia persimilis from Southern Chilean Patagonia and its relation with the Neotropical aquatic birds.

The brine shrimp genus Artemia Leach (Crustacea, Branchiopoda), a keystone group in hipersaline wetlands all over the world, offers an excellent model to study species interactions (parasitism) and to explore “hidden fauna” (avian endoparasites). The present study is the first report on the parasite infection of the South American species Artemia persimilis from the Southern Chilean Patagonia (50°S–53°S). Samples were collected in Los Cisnes and Amarga lagoons, the two most austral populations of this crustacean described to date, during two seasons (spring and autumn). A total of 98 larvae of cestodes of the family Hymenolepididae (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea) were found and identified as belonging to the following taxa: Confluaria podicipina (adult parasitic in grebes), Flamingolepis sp. (a cestode parasite of flamingos), Fimbriarioides (?) sp. (adults of the species of this genus infect waterfowl and shorebirds) and Wardium sp. (definitive host unknown, most probably charadriiform birds). This is a new geographical record of C. podicipina and the genus Fimbriarioides for the Neotropical Region, the latter being the most widely distributed species at both localities and seasons surveyed, and the only species recorded in autumn (April). Cestode community composition in Los Cisnes population was characterised by dominance of Flamingolepis sp., representing more than 65% of the total cestode species recorded, whereas in the Amarga population the most abundant parasite (>83%) was Fimbriarioides (?) sp. Significant seasonal variations were detected in Los Cisnes lagoon for Flamingolepis sp. and C. podicipina, with exclusive presence of them in spring (November). Besides providing novel information on cestodes infection in A. persimilis, this study provides new data on the life cycle of cestodes of Neotropical aquatic birds such as South American flamingos and grebes. Our finding expands the knowledge on the biodiversity and population dynamics of extreme and unique environments from high latitudes (Patagonia) and makes evident the need of further taxonomical and ecological studies for better understanding the life cycles of avian helminth parasites in the Neotropics and the role of aquatic invertebrates in them.

Plant community shifts along tree canopy cover gradients in grazed Patagonian Nothofagus antarctica forests and grasslands

Nothofagus antarctica forests at the Chilean Patagonia are valued for both their ecological and livestock production value. Despite their importance, there is not enough information about the understory associated to these forests. Previous studies have reported the dependence of the understory on the light intensity reaching the sward. Thus, our objective was to study the effect of the tree canopy cover on the plant community composition and productivity of the forests´ understory. We established four experimental sites along a 100-km transect covering an area of 700 km2 in Southern Chilean Patagonia. 73 1-m2 metal exclusion cages (quadrats) were randomly distributed along tree cover gradients on the sites. Bare soil, litter and understory cover were registered. Plant botanical composition was also recorded. At the end of the growing season plant biomass was harvested to estimate yield. Species frequency and abundance were analyzed. Species richness and biodiversity were determined. We found 37 species distributed in 20 families. Woody species represented 13.5%, grasses 24.3% and forbs 62.2% of the total. Species richness was higher in grasslands than forests. There was a trend in decreasing biodiversity when increasing tree canopy cover. Differences in yield between grasslands and open forests were not significant. High forage value species presented higher abundance in open forests than grasslands. We conclude that open forests of N. antarctica have higher grazing potential than their associated grasslands. These findings support the facilitation effect of trees over understory species reported previously.

Soil conditions and sheltering techniques improve active restoration of degraded Nothofagus pumilio forest in Southern Patagonia

Nothofagus pumilio forests in the Southern Patagonia region of Chile are highly degraded because of clearing for human settlements, extensive livestock grazing, and more recently, the impact of coal mining operations. Most of these legacy areas have remained as extensive meadows of non-native grasses and legumes with limited Nothofagus pumilio forest recovery due to dry soil moisture conditions and exposure to high wind and solar radiation. Therefore, active reforestation is needed to reclaim Nothofagus pumilio forests from abandoned grassland or disturbances caused by surface mine operation. In this study, a surface coal mine operation and an abandoned meadow established in the 1950 s needed to be restored back to N. pumilio forest on Riesco Island, in Southern Chilean Patagonia. We compared the establishment success of Nothofagus pumilio seedlings on replicated blocks under two conditions (experimental treatments): (i) four blocks of meadow previously disturbed by livestock grazing, (MS), and (ii) four blocks where a deep layer of the soil profile was removed, mixed, and then replaced simulating recommendations used for reclaiming surface coal mines (RS). To improve Nothofagus pumilio establishment and protection at each block under both soil conditions, seedlings were planted both unprotected and protected from wind and solar radiation using four different types of shelters: shade cloth, irregular log piles, white polypropylene shelters, and woody branches. Soil physical and chemical properties, seedling survival and growth, leaf water potential, and stomatal conductance were measured. Results at the end of the first and fourth growing seasons showed better conditions for seedling growth in the RS treatment. Mean survival rates began to be different following the second growing season with values of 84.7 ± 2.9% in RS and 60.2 ± 3.2% survival in MS treatments, respectively. At the end of the study, the difference between the treatments was even geater with values of 75.4 ± 5.5% and 32.2 ± 7.1%. Soil removal and replacement significantly changed soil physical properties, but values were still adequate for vegetation development. The use of shelters significantly influenced four-year survival rates of seedlings planted on the disturbed MS treatment with 60 ± 8.2% survival in plastic shelters and less than 25.5 ± 6.5% for all other shelters. The effects of the shelters were less clear in the RS treatment. Our study showed that Nothofagus pumilio restoration on abandoned grassland and reclaimed mine sites in Patagonia is a feasible option when soil conditions and planting techniques improve soil water availability, and when seedling are protected against excessive solar radiation and wind.

New record of Podilymbus podiceps (Linnaeus, 1758) (Podicipediformes, Podicipedidae) in the Patagonian region of southern Chile

We report a new record of Podilymbus podiceps (Linnaeus, 1758) in the southern Chilean Patagonia, 120 km south of previous records on the western side of the Andes, and more than 400 km south of their known distribution area on the eastern side of the Andes. This is the southernmost record of this species in Chile and one of the southernmost records worldwide, highlighting the vagrancy of this species in southern Patagonia.

First report of Branchinecta (Anostraca) in seasonal coastal pools in the Araucania region (Puaucho, 39°S, Chile)

AbstractTo date, he fairy shrimps (Anostraca) of Chilean inland waters have been poorly described. Those that were described mainly belong to the genusBranchinecta, and the reports are primarily restricted to shallow seasonal pools at the northern and southern extremes of Chile. The aim of the present study was to give a first description ofBranchinecta rocaensis, reported from ephemeral coastal pools in the Puaucho dunes, situated in the Araucania region. The results of null model analysis revealed first, that species associations are random and that there is niche overlap, while according to the principal component analysis,B. rocaensiswas present at sites with low conductivity, low total dissolved solids and low temperature values, but with a high abundance of ostracods. The results obtained would agree with similar observations forBranchinectahabitats in southern Chilean Patagonia.

Trophic relationships of a subtidal fish assemblage in the Francisco Coloane Coastal Marine Protected Area, southern Chilean Patagonia

A combination of stomach content and nitrogen (δ15N) and carbon (δ13C) stable-isotope analysis was used to assess the trophic interactions and feeding habits of three notothenioid coastal fish (Cha...

Influence of Glacier Melting and River Discharges on the Nutrient Distribution and DIC Recycling in the Southern Chilean Patagonia

AbstractThe Chilean Patagonia constitutes one of the most important and extensive fjord systems worldwide, therefore can be used as a natural laboratory to elucidate the pathway of both organic and inorganic matter in the receiving environment. In this study we use data collected during an intensive oceanographic cruise along the Magellan Strait into the Almirantazgo Fjord in southern Patagonia to evaluate how different sources of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and recycling may impact particulate organic carbon (POC) δ13C and influence the nutrients and carbonate system spatial distribution. The carbonate system presented large spatial heterogeneity. The lowest total alkalinity and DIC were associated to freshwater dilution observed near melting glaciers. The δ13CDIC analysis suggests that most DIC in the upper 50 m depth was not derived from terrestrial organic matter remineralization. 13C‐depleted riverine and ice‐melting DIC influence the DIC pool along the study area, but due to that DIC concentration from rivers and glaciers is relatively low, atmospheric carbon contribution or biological processes seem to be more relevant. Intense undersaturation of CO2 was observed in high chlorophyll waters. Respired DIC coming from the bottom waters seems to be almost insignificant for the inorganic carbon pool and therefore do not impact significantly the stable carbon isotopic composition of dissolved organic carbon and POC in the upper 50 m depth. Considering the combined effect of cold and low alkalinity waters due to ice melting, our results highlight the importance of these processes in determining corrosive waters for CaCO3 and local acidification processes associated to calving glacier in fjord ecosystems.