Southern California Sensory Integration Tests Research Articles

Associations between Executive Functions and Sensorimotor Performance in Children at Risk for Learning Disabilities.

Executive functions (EF) and sensorimotor skills play a critical role in children's goal-directed behavior and school readiness. The aim of the current study is to provide new insights into the relationship between executive functions and sensorimotor development by considering the risks associated with learning difficulties. Therefore, we investigate the predictive role of EF and sensorimotor skills in the development of learning difficulties during preschool years. Ninety-five preschool children (5-7 years old) were tested, comparing the performance of children that are at risk of learning difficulties (n = 55) to the performance of typically developing children (n = 40). Participants completed a battery for the assessment of sensorimotor skills (i.e., Southern California Sensory Integration Test: postural imitation, body midline crossing, bilateral motor coordination, and standing balance with eyes open) and executive functions (i.e., inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and verbal working memory). Our results show that children at risk for learning difficulties exhibited more impairments on sensorimotor and EF measures (inhibition and verbal working memory) when compared with TD children. We ran three separate binary logistic regression analyses to assess the relative influence of EF and sensorimotor functions on predicting risk for learning difficulties. Our findings demonstrated that verbal working memory as EF function (odd ratio (OR) = 0.91, 95% CI 0.78-0.91, P = 0.05) and standing balance skills as a sensorimotor skill (odd ratio (OR) = 0.86, 95% CI 0.81-0.98, P = 0.01) were the strongest predictors of risk for learning difficulties. The findings point to the importance of supporting children's executive function development and promoting sensorimotor development, as both fundamentally influence school readiness.

Assessment of the sensorimotor integration development in primary school children from Wroclaw, Poland: a prospective observational study

IntroductionSenses are essential in the development of psychomotor functioning in healthy 7-year-old children who enter school. The aim of the study was to assess the level of sensorimotor integration in children starting school education.MethodsThe study involved 82 children from primary schools. The first examination (T1) was carried out at the beginning of the 2018/2019 school year; the second examination (T2) was performed after a 6-month interval. The level of sensorimotor integration development was measured by the Southern California Sensory Integration Test (SCSIT) in 11 sensory categories.ResultsIn 10 out of the 11 SCSIT tests, the children obtained statistically significantly higher mean results after 6 months of education (T2) than at the beginning of the school year (T1) (<i>p</i> < 0.05). The scores achieved at T1 in SCSIT showed that the following risks of sensorimotor integration disorders were found most often: deep sensation disorders (kinaesthesia test) among 13.4% of the children and incorrect processing of superficial feeling (graphesthesia test) among 12.2%.ConclusionsThe beginning of early childhood education is a difficult period for children to adapt to school requirements. With 7-year-old children starting school education, attention should be paid to their potential difficulties related to abnormalities in deep sensation, especially kinaesthesia (orientation in the positioning of the body parts) and graphesthesia (ability to ‘read’ shapes).

The effects of very early mirror therapy on functional improvement of the upper extremity in acute stroke patients.

[Purpose] The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of a very early mirror therapy program on functional improvement of the upper extremity in acute stroke patients. [Subjects] Eight stroke patients who were treated in an acute neurology unit were included in the study. [Methods] The patients were assigned alternatively to either the mirror therapy group receiving mirror therapy and neurodevelopmental treatment or the neurodevelopmental treatment only group. The primary outcome measures were the upper extremity motor subscale of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment, Motricity Index upper extremity score, and the Stroke Upper Limb Capacity Scale. Somatosensory assessment with the Ayres Southern California Sensory Integration Test, and the Barthel Index were used as secondary outcome measures. [Results] No statistically significant improvements were found for any measures in either group after the treatment. In terms of minimally clinically important differences, there were improvements in Fugl-Meyer Assessment and Barthel Index in both mirror therapy and neurodevelopmental treatment groups. [Conclusion] The results of this pilot study revealed that very early mirror therapy has no additional effect on functional improvement of upper extremity function in acute stroke patients. Multicenter trials are needed to determine the results of early application of mirror therapy in stroke rehabilitation.

A Small Sample Test of the Factor Structure of Postural Movement and Bilateral Motor Integration Using Structural Equation Modeling

The goal of this study was to examine the relationship between the validity of postural movement and bilateral motor integration in terms of sensory integration theory. Participants in this study were 61 Chinese children ages 48 to 70 months. Structural equation modeling was applied to assess the relation between measures tapping postural movement and bilateral motor integration: for postural movement, the measures involve the Monkey Task, Side-Sit Co-contraction, Prone on Elbows, Wheelbarrow Walk, Airplane, and Scooter Board Co-contraction from the DeGangi-Berk Test of Sensory Integration, and Standing Balance with Eyes Closed/Opened in Southern California Sensory Integration Tests. For bilateral motor integration, the measures chosen were the Rolling Pin Activity, Jump and Turn, Diadokokinesis, Drumming, and Upper Extremity Control from the DeGangi-Berk Test of Sensory Integration, and Cross the Midline in Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (SCSIT). Postural movement was highly correlated with the bilateral motor integration. The factor structure fit the theoretical conceptualization, classifying postural movement and bilateral motor integration together in the same category. Therapists could combine two separate objectives (postural movement and bilateral motor integration) of intervention in an activity to improve the adaptive skills based on the vestibular-proprioceptive integration.

Sensory integration and activities of daily living in children with developmental coordination disorder

ObjectiveThe aim of our study was to evaluate sensory integration and activities of daily living in children with developmental coordination disorderSubjects and methods37 cases with developmental coordination disorder and 35 healthy age-matched peers were included in this study. Ayres Southern California Sensory Integration Test was used for evaluating the sensory integration and Functional Independence Measure for Children (WeeFIM) was used for evaluating the activities of daily living.ResultsSignificant differences were found in the visual shape perception, position in space, and design copying (p < 0.05). According to the results of somatosensory perception tests, significant differences were found in kinesthesia, manual form perception, finger identification, figure-ground perception, localization of tactile stimuli, double tactile stimuli perception (p < 0.05). Control group was better in motor planning (p < 0.05). Comprehension, expression, social communication, problem solving, and memory skills were significant in favor of the control group (p < 0.05). Graphestesia and self-care domain was found to be correlated (r = 0,491, p = 0.002) between the groups.DiscussionSpecial education and rehabilitation programs including sensory integration therapy and motor performance will increase independence in the activities of daily living in children with developmental coordination disorder.

SEX DIFFERENCES IN SENSORY INTEGRATION DYSFUNCTION

A discriminant analysis of test items in the Southern California Sensory Integration Test (SCSIT) Battery and the Southern California Postrotary Nystagmus Test (SCPNT) was performed to investigate sex-related differences in sensory integration dysfunction. The analysis revealed a discriminahnt function differentiating between boys and girls, with boys showing less dysfunction in tests of spatial orientation, kinesthesia and standing balance than girls. In only one test item, Bilateral Motor Co-ordination, did girls show less dysfunction than boys. Results are discussed in terms of performance studies which have suggested such a bias and also the implications for evaluation of children with sensory integration dysfunction.

Comparison of Balance and Gait in Visually or Hearing Impaired Children

The study was planned to evaluate the effect of loss of hearing and vision on balance and gait in 60 children, 20 of whom had hearing loss (M age = 9.3 yr., SD = 0.9), 20 who were visually impaired (M age = 12.2 yr., SD = 2.5), and 20 controls with no disability (M age = 9.4 yr., SD = 0.6). Standing Balance subtests of the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests were used. Gait analysis was conducted on a powdered surface. When the gait analysis results of the three groups of children were compared, statistically significant differences were noted. Scores for the hearing impaired group were more like those of the control group than those of the visually impaired group. Results show that children with visual impairment had more problems with balance and gait than controls.

An investigation of the factors affecting handwriting skill in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy*

Purpose. This study investigated the effects of sensory-perceptual-motor and cognitive functions on handwriting skill in primary-school children with left-hemiplegic cerebral palsy, compared with that of their healthy peers.Methods. The study included 26 children aged 8–12 years with left hemiplegic cerebral palsy and 32 typically developing children of similar age with dominant right hand. The Minnesota Handwriting Assessment was used to evaluate handwriting skill. The Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency was used to assess motor performance. Cognitive function was assessed by the Lowenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment. The Ayres Southern California Sensory Integration Tests were used to assess visual perception, kinaesthesia and graphesthesia.Results. Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups in sensory-perceptual-motor and cognitive function and handwriting skill (p < 0.05). There were also significant correlations between handwriting parameters and upper-extremity speed and dexterity, proprioception, bilateral coordination, visual and spatial perception and, visual-motor organisation in children with cerebral palsy (p < 0.05).Conclusions. The results showed that left-hemiplegic children with cerebral palsy whose right sides were dominant were significantly less competent at handwriting than their right-dominant, healthy peers. It was found that the impairment in proprioception seen in the non-hemiplegic side in children with cerebral palsy, and also the impairment in bilateral coordination, speed and dexterity of the upper extremities, visual and spatial perception, visual-motor organization, and tactile-sensory impairments negatively affected their handwriting skills. In the treatment approaches for children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy, comprehensive sensory-perceptual-motor assessments that involve both extremities must be performed in detail at the earliest possible stage, in order to minimize the existing problems with early-treatment policies. Developing the sensory-perceptual-motor and cognitive function of hemiplegic children would thus be possible, and they would be able to develop handwriting skill as a tool for their academic lives as healthy peers.

An investigation of the factors affecting handwriting performance in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy

Purpose. This study investigated the effects of sensory – perceptual – motor and cognitive functions on handwriting performance in primary-school children with left-hemiplegic cerebral palsy, compared with that of their healthy peers.Methods. The study included 26 children aged 8 – 12 years with left-hemiplegic cerebral palsy and 32 typically developing children of similar age with dominant right hand. The Minnesota Handwriting Assessment was used to evaluate handwriting ability. The Bruininks – Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency was used to assess motor performance. Cognitive function was assessed by the Loewenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment. The Ayres Southern California Sensory Integration Tests were used to assess visual perception, kinaesthesia, and graphesthesia.Results. Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups in sensory-perceptual-motor and cognitive function and in handwriting ability (p < 0.05). There were also significant correlations between handwriting parameters and upper-extremity speed and dexterity, proprioception, bilateral coordination, visual and spatial perception and, visual-motor organisation in children with cerebral palsy (p < 0.05).Conclusions. The results showed that left-hemiplegic children with cerebral palsy whose right sides were dominant were significantly less competent at handwriting than their right-dominant, healthy peers. It was found that the impairment in proprioception seen in the non-hemiplegic side in children with cerebral palsy, and also the impairment in bilateral coordination, speed and dexterity of the upper extremities, visual and spatial perception, visual-motor organization, and tactile-sensory impairments negatively affected their handwriting skills. In the treatment approaches for children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy, comprehensive sensory – perceptual – motor assessments that involve both extremities must be performed in detail at the earliest possible stage, in order to minimize the existing problems with early-treatment policies. Developing the sensory – perceptual – motor and cognitive function of hemiplegic children would thus be possible, and they would be able to adapt to the same primary-school curriculum as their healthy peers.

Effectiveness of two different sensory-integration programmes for children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy

Purpose: This study was planned to investigate the effects of individual and group approaches to sensory-perceptual-motor (SPM) training on children with cerebral palsy. Method: This study was carried out at the School of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation of Hacettepe University, Occupational Therapy Unit. Forty-one children who were diagnosed as having spastic diplegic cerebral palsy by the Department of Paediatric Neurology of Hacettepe University were assessed. Forty-one children with cerebral palsy were randomly divided into three groups. Individual and group SPM training were given to first group (IND) (n 16) and second group (GRP) (n 16) respectively. The third group was determined as a control group (n 9) and only the home programme was given. All children were evaluated with Ayres Southern California Sensory Integration Test and Physical Ability Test before and after training. The SPM training programmes were applied for 1.5 hours, 3 days per week for 3 months. Results: Estimates of effect sizes were calculated for group, individual and control treatments. Results indicated that both group and individual treatments had a measurable effect that was consistently greater than that of controls. Conclusions: This study shows that programmes of SPM training in individuals and group treatments affect children with cerebral palsy. It was concluded that SPM training in children with cerebral palsy will be applied to combined programmes and the relationship with individual and group treatments developed.

Alternative Assessments for Sensory Integration Dysfunction

This article describes research designed to compare the results that were obtained from assessing 14 boys aged 5–11 years using two batteries of tests for the identification of sensory integration dysfunction. The results of tests commonly used in the United Kingdom were statistically and graphically compared with the results from the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (SCSIT), which were used as a standard measure. The research indicated that both assessment protocols provide similar diagnostic information, except for the motor domain. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children provides information on the child's level of motor function, but does not provide information on motor planning and bilateral and sequencing ability that is equivalent to that provided by the SCSIT. Further areas of research are suggested.

Functional oral-motor skills: Do they change with age?

Dysphagia, a difficulty eating or drinking, appears to increase with age and is a concern for our growing elderly population. Mastication, tongue mobility, and lip closure are skills of the oral phase of ingestion, and have been shown to deteriorate with age. However, it is not clear whether these changes affect functional feeding. It is also unclear whether dysphagia is the result of the aging process itself, or whether it is secondary to disease. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify changes during the oral phase of ingestion in a group of healthy seniors. Functional feeding skills and oral praxis abilities were measured in 79 healthy adults aged 60-97 years. The Modified Functional Feeding Assessment (FFAm) subscale of the Multidisciplinary Feeding Profile (MFP) and the Oral Praxis Subtest (OPS) of the Southern California Sensory Integration Test were administered respectively. An interview followed to obtain information on denture wear, use of hearing aids and glasses, and types of foods avoided. Seniors maintained functional feeding skills throughout the four decades studied. These skills were not age-dependent, but depended on whether or not subjects wore full dentures. Even though all of the seniors maintained functional feeding skills, more seniors in the younger group (7th decade 60%, 8th decade 67%) had difficulty with a variety of food textures such as soft, hard, fibrous, and some with tough skins, than the older group (9th decade 40%, 10th decade 44%). Oral praxis abilities were correlated significantly with age, but not with hearing aid use. Overall, healthy seniors maintained their functional feeding and oral praxis skills. Good health and natural dentition appear to be excellent indicators for functional feeding ability.

The Effects of Tactile Defensiveness and Tactile Discrimination on In-Hand Manipulation

The purpose of this study was to compare in-hand manipulation efficiency in children with and without tactile defensiveness and low tactile discrimination. Fifty children, aged 4 to 6 years, were tested with the use of three subtests of the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (SCSIT) (Ayres, 1980), which measured tactile function, and three in-hand manipulation tasks. Tactile defensiveness was rated during performance of the selected SCSIT subtests. Nine of the children had mild developmental delays and 41 were without delays. Low correlations between scores on tactile defensiveness and tactile discrimination suggested that these two aspects of tactile function are separate but related phenomena. Children with both defensiveness and discrimination problems demonstrated the least efficiency on all of the in-hand manipulation tasks and had significantly higher time scores on the turn and translation in-hand manipulation tasks. Poor discrimination or tactile defensiveness alone did not relate to poor in-hand manipulation. The results suggest that a child's tactile function should be considered in therapy to improve manipulation skill. Strategies to decrease tactile defensiveness and improve tactile discrimination may facilitate achievement of higher levels of in-hand manipulation.

Functional Ability and Performance on Neuropsychological Indices in Chronic Psychiatric Outpatients

Thirty adults in a psychiatric day hospital were subjects in a study designed to examine the relationship between performance in social, occupational, and leisure spheres with neurological functioning and demographic variables. All subjects were administered the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the Southern California Sensory Integration Test, and Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery. A rating scale adapted from the DSM III, Axis V as well as extensive chart reviews, were used to assess functional performance. This study revealed that very few neurological or demographic variables predicted the subjects performance in social, occupational, or leisure situations. Implications of these and other results are discussed.

Relations Between Design Copying and Other Tests of Sensory Integrative Dysfunction: A Pilot Study

The purpose of this pilot study was to investigate possible relations between performance on the atypical approach parameters of the Design Copying (DC) subtest of the Sensory Integration and Praxis Tests (SIPT) (Ayres, 1989) and scores on the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (SCSIT) (Ayres, 1980). An existing data set was used that consisted of SCSIT and SIPT-DC scores from 32 children identified by their performance on the SCSIT as having sensory integrative dysfunction. Three questions were addressed: (a) Are there relations between scores on the atypical approach parameters of the SIPT-DC and SCSIT scores? (b) To what extent do the SCSIT scores collectively predict the presence or absence of the SIPT-DC atypical approach parameters? and (c) Are there relations among scores on the SIPT-DC atypical approach parameters? The results suggest that the scores on individual SIPT-DC atypical approach parameters may be related to the scores on the SCSIT subtests. In particular, significant relationships were found between some of the SIPT-DC parameters and the SCSIT subtests that assess visual, tactile, and motor components.

The Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Hand Size and Strength, Vestibular Function, Visuomotor Integration, and Praxis in Preschool Children

Differences in hand size and strength, vestibular function, visuomotor integration, and praxis in preschool children as a function of socioeconomic status were investigated. Twenty-two children of lower socioeconomic status, aged 3 to 5 years, were each matched with a child of higher socioeconomic status on the basis of race, sex, hand dominance, age, height, and weight. Measures used were the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery, 1982), hand size and strength, the Standing Balance subtests of the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayres, 1972), the Bowman Unilateral Hopping Test (Flannigan, 1987), the Southern California Postrotary Nystagmus Test (Ayres, 1975), the praxis tests of the Sensory Integration and Praxis Tests (SIPT) (Ayres, 1984), and the Bowman Quality of Prone Extension Scale (Etheredge, 1987). Analyses with two separate Hotelling's T2 for correlated samples (Huck, Cormier, & Bounds, 1974) revealed significant differences in hand size and strength as well as praxis, and subsequent post hoc analyses revealed better scores for the higher socioeconomic status group on right hand strength and on the Praxis on Verbal Command subtest of the SIPT. A paired t test also revealed that the higher socioeconomic status group scored better on visuomotor integration. Analysis with Hotelling's T2 revealed no significant differences between the two groups on the vestibular measures. The results of this study suggest that on certain tests used by occupational therapists, children from a higher socioeconomic status group may function at a higher developmental level than those from a lower socioeconomic status group. When interpreting clients' test results, therefore, therapists should consider the possible influence of socioeconomic status.

Using the Sensory Integration and Praxis Tests to Measure Change: A Pilot Study

Nineteen boys aged 6 through 8 years were pretested with the preliminary edition of the Sensory Integration and Praxis Tests (SIPT) (Ayres, 1984). They subsequently received 6 months of twice weekly occupational therapy with sensory integration intervention in a school setting and were then posttested with the preliminary edition of the SIPT. Significant improvement was seen in scores of grouped data on tests of praxis, somatovestibular functioning, and bilateral integration and sequencing. Individual improvement was visible in the Western Psychological Services ChromaGraphs of 17 of the 19 boys. Although preliminary, these findings suggest that the SIPT, unlike the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayres, 1972a), may be used to document improvement in children who have received occupational therapy with sensory integrative techniques.

Alternative Means of Assessment: A Comparison of Standardised Tests Identifying Minimal Cerebral Dysfunction

Since 1977 in Dundee, children referred to occupational therapy with the diagnosis of minimal cerebral dysfunction have been assessed using the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests. Revision and restandardisation of this test battery with attendant problems prompted the focus of this study. The purpose was to compare the effectiveness of the Test of Motor Impairment (Henderson Revision) and the Aston Index (Revised Version) with that of the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests in identifying the specific difficulties of this group of children, prior to deciding whether current practice should change.

Tactile Functions in Learning-Disabled and Normal Children: Reliability and Validity Considerations

This study compared tactile functions of learning-disabled and normal children as measured by the tactile portions of the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests and the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, Children's revision, to explore the reliability and validity of the two measures and to determine to what extent they are able to discriminate between normal and learning-disabled children. The subjects were sixty 8-year-old children: 30 normal children and 30 children with learning disabilities. The results showed a significant difference between the tactile scores of learning-disabled and normal children. The internal consistency of both tests was .80. A test-retest reliability coefficient of .86 was obtained for both measures. The construct validity for both measures was good. Furthermore, a discriminant analysis correctly classified 90% of the children. Concurrent validity between the two measures was .73. The study also showed that individual tests of the tactile section of the Southern California tests and of the tactile section of the Luria-Nebraska battery (which was artificially divided into subsections for the purposes of this study) are less reliable than the tests given together.

The SCSIT: A Potential Tool for Assessing Neurological Impairment in Adult Psychiatric Outpatients

Thirty adults in a psychiatric day hospital were subjects in a study examining the validity of using the Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (SCSIT) to measure neurological functioning in an adult psychiatric population The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the SCSIT, and the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery were administered to all subjects. Statistical analysis of the data reveals that selected tests from the SCSIT are valid measures of neurological functioning in the adult psychiatric population and suggests that further research on the usefulness of the SCSIT for assessing adult performance is warranted.