Southern African Development Community Countries Research Articles

Assessment of SADC Countries’ National Adaptation Planning Health Impacts Inclusion: A Thorough Review

Background: The impacts of climate change are recognised as a key challenge of the 21st century. By 2030, Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to have the globally highest burden of disease due to climate change. Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), a sub-region under-represented at a global level, in addressing current and future climate change–related health impacts. It specifically assesses the NAPs of Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Methods: A thorough review was conducted, analysing articles, government reports, and national communications related to NAPs and climate change health outcomes in the selected countries. Sources were evaluated against pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Main findings: All five countries prioritised health in their NAPs; however, health departments were excluded from assessments in two of the countries. Although health surveillance and early warning systems were included in the NAPs, there was limited evidence of their integration into broader climate, health, economic, and labour policies. National climate change focal points were identified, but governance and implementation at district and local levels were not well-documented. This review highlighted a need for greater inclusion of Indigenous and locally led knowledge. Common barriers identified included the lack of data with appropriate frequency and scale. Governance and implementation difficulties were also identified in all five countries; these difficulties included both a lack of coordination and a lack of institutional capacity. These challenges, especially a lack of political will to address the compound impacts of altered climate and health on all earth systems, are also found at the regional level. Conclusions: National strategies and implementation programs in SADC countries need to be agile in their ability to scale and adapt, yet they also need to include measurable actions and timeframes. Given the shared climate and health trends and the interconnected socio-economic, environmental, and political landscape, there is significant potential for regional coordination to address cross-border climate change impacts and to optimise resource use.

Lifelong Learning among Students in the Context of COVID-19: A Case Study of the SADC Region

COVID-19 has disrupted the process of teaching and learning across the globe, posing significant challenges to educational institutions worldwide. Some universities in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region faced difficulties in transitioning to online learning, which adversely affected students' academic progress. The pandemic intensified the existing inequalities in the SADC region, further marginalising students from disadvantaged backgrounds and impeding their access to quality education. However, despite the adverse effects of COVID-19 on traditional contact-based learning, students managed to acquire a new set of skills necessary for navigating the digital age. Moreover, the pandemic presented opportunities for students in the SADC region to develop essential skills for participation in the mainstream economy. This study examines how COVID-19 disrupted students' academic development, and the lessons that students learnt during the pandemic in the SADC countries, with a special focus on South Africa and Zimbabwe. The study concludes by highlighting the interventions adopted by higher education institutions in the SADC region to support students in the context of COVID-19. Methodologically, this study employed secondary data analysis, including policies and existing literature. The findings reveal that students learnt new and innovative ways of studying during the pandemic. This study is underpinned by the self-directed learning theory, which emphasises the importance of self-reliance among students. An important recommendation concerns implementing policies within SADC to promote lifelong learning among students, both during and after COVID-19. In addition, the study proposes that higher education institutions establish tech-innovation hubs on campuses, where students can interact and acquire new skills needed in the digital age.

Transboundary COVID-19 response on health communication in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe

A global COVID-19 pandemic caused untold community disruptions, a huge toll on lives and placed major burdens on the economies of developing countries. It spread worldwide within a short period of time before nations could mobilise evidence for the best responses. Communities in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe were heavily disrupted. This article focuses on exploring the transboundary differences in COVID-19 responses, plus the implications for improving the health communication strategies in a pandemic age. Health practitioners and governments were ill-prepared to inform the general public about the pandemic and enforced complete shutdowns of economic and social activities. With the COVID-19 pandemic ravaging communities, there was a dearth of focused health communication on COVID-19’s end. New tools of communication and dissemination of information were embraced in the southern Africa country-specific cases. For example, content on precautionary lifestyles, individual or personal responsibility and utilisation of community health workers in the pandemic era was prioritised to prevent or minimise infections and avoid recurrence of the disease. New communication methods were important for addressing uncertainty and can be applied for any future pandemic. This health communication topic addresses the neglected, but important gap on the efficacy of processes towards better health communication strategies. The transdisciplinary methods include improved health communication strategies informed by the experiences of three Southern African Development Community countries. While such measures to arrest COVID-19 proved plausible, these countries’ projections for the future are a concern, suggesting an urgent need to enhance and strengthen health communication in southern Africa.Transdisciplinary contribution: This is a transdisciplinary exploration of health communication and its implications for COVID-19 and future pandemic responses in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Health capital and economic performance in selected Southern African development Community (SADC) countries

Health capital and economic performance in selected Southern African development Community (SADC) countries

Land to the landless: Does the type of approach matter?

Uncertainty about land ownership is believed to increase vulnerability of marginalized groups in a society. When agriculture is not only responsible for employing more than half of the labor force population but also the main source of the livelihood of poor families, access to land becomes critical. This paper conducts a comprehensive analysis of the impact of land reform on agricultural output in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. Employing a system of equations model and controlling for traditional variables, our study yields several noteworthy findings. First, our results reveal that land development exhibits a positive impact on agricultural output, emphasizing the importance of investment in agriculture. Conversely, the positive coefficient for civil unrest highlights the intricate relationship between land reform and social stability, suggesting that unrest may be a consequence of land reform aimed at addressing inequality. Second, the channel equations shed light on the indirect pathways through which factors like rural population growth rate, life expectancy, and capital stock influence agricultural output. These findings underscore the potential benefits of managing rural population growth, improving healthcare, and increasing investment in agriculture, albeit with varying degrees of impact. Third, our study dissects the different effects of land reform policies. Willing seller-willing buyer and various forms of expropriation are found to be significant in both land development and civil unrest equations, indicating their dual role in promoting land development while potentially contributing to social unrest. Striking a balance between land reform and stability emerges as a crucial policy challenge.

Outer packaging labelling of medicines in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries: comparative analysis of requirements and transition terms for harmonisation

IntroductionThe COVID-19 pandemic highlighted an urgent need for harmonised requirements for the regulation of medicines. To fully implement harmonised medicines regulations across Africa, common technical standards of medicine regulations are needed. One such technical standard is the labelling of medicines on outer packaging. In this study, we compared outer packaging labelling requirements and transition terms for harmonization for countries in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region.MethodsData on legislation and/or regulatory guidelines for medicine outer packaging labelling from National Medicines Regulatory Authorities (NMRAs) were obtained for countries in the SADC region (n = 16) by February 2023. A detailed comparative content analysis was conducted to determine alignment with the requirements of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) harmonised labelling guidelines to assess readiness levels of each country to transition to the SADC harmonised labelling guideline for outer packaging of medicines.ResultsContent analysis showed at least 11 out of 16 countries require national legal reform to transition to the SADC harmonised labelling guideline. In all cases where countries specified labelling requirements for outer packaging of medicines, these were stipulated in national medicines legislation.ConclusionEven though there is a high level of alignment across the countries in terms of national labelling requirements, most countries in the SADC region would still require national legislative reform to transition to regional harmonised labelling requirements and then ultimately to continental requirements of the African Medicines Agency (AMA).

Geospatial Tools and Remote Sensing Strategies for Timely Humanitarian Response: A Case Study on Drought Monitoring in Eswatini

This article explores the escalating impact of natural disasters, particularly droughts, in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), with a specific focus on Eswatini. Over the last century, approximately 63 million people in SADC countries have been affected by droughts, leading to challenges in agriculture, livestock losses, and severe food and water shortages. Despite being the smallest SADC nation, the Kingdom of Eswatini faces disproportionate consequences due to its susceptibility to climate variability, particularly drought. The inadequacy and unreliability of rainfall have resulted in a drastic reduction in food production, with maize, a staple crop, experiencing a 70% decline. This adverse trend, spanning three decades, has heightened the vulnerability of farmers to climatic shocks, hindering sustainable agricultural development and impeding poverty alleviation efforts. To address the growing threat of drought in the kingdom, a comprehensive approach is imperative, involving coordinated plans and the development of swift humanitarian relief strategies. This study utilized remote sensing technologies to monitor drought and assess its repercussions, evaluating the impact on agricultural production. Additionally, geospatial tools, including Open Route Service (ORS) and Near Neighbor Analysis algorithms, were employed to optimize humanitarian supply chain logistics. Results from the analysis, including Vegetation Health Index (VHI) fluctuations and drought severity mapping, reveal that 1990 was the year the kingdom was most severely hit by drought. This study also found that smallholder farmers practicing rainfed agriculture in vulnerable regions, such as the lower Middleveld and western Lowveld, suffered the severe socioeconomic consequences of agricultural drought, including income loss, food insecurity, and migration patterns. Through this integrated approach, decision makers can engage in targeted interventions, focusing on farming areas needing irrigation infrastructures or populated areas requiring a coordinated humanitarian response amidst climate variability.

Trends in the burden of most common obesity-related cancers in 16 Southern Africa development community countries, 1990-2019. Findings from the global burden of disease study.

Obesity-related cancers in the 16 Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries is quite prominent. The changes and time trends of the burden of obesity-related cancers in developing countries like SADC remain largely unknown. A descriptive epidemiological analysis was conducted to assess the burden of obesity-related cancers, (liver, esophageal, breast, prostate, colon/rectal, leukemia, ovarian, uterine, pancreatic, kidney, gallbladder/biliary tract, and thyroid cancers) in SADC countries. Data from the 2019 Global Burden of Diseases Study was used. Deaths extracted from vital registration, verbal autopsies and ICD codes. Cancer-type, mortality and prevalence per 100,000 population and 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs) were calculated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model and Spatio-Temporal Gaussian process with mixed effects regression models. Annual rates of change (AROCs) between 1990 and 2019 and the corresponding UIs were calculated. The top age-standardized mortality rates per 100,000 in 2019 for males were leukemia, 20.1(14.4-26.4), esophageal cancer, 15.1 (11.2-19.1), and colon and rectal cancer, 10.3 (8.6-12.6). For females, breast cancer, 20.6 (16.6-25.0), leukemia, 17.1 (11.4-23.7), and esophageal cancer, 8.3 (5.5-10.7), had the leading mortality rates. For males, AROC substantial (p<0.05) increase for kidney cancer for 11 of the countries (AROC from 0.41% to 1.24%), colon cancer for eight of the countries (from 0.39% to 0.92%), and pancreatic cancer for seven countries (from 0.26% to 1.01%). In females, AROC showed substantial increase for pancreatic cancer for 13 of the countries from (0.34%-1.67%), nine countries for kidney cancer (from 0.27% to 1.02%), seven countries each for breast cancer (0.35%-1.13%), and ovarian cancer (from 0.33% to 1.21%). There is need for location-specific and culturally appropriate strategies for better nutrition and weight control, and improved screening for all cancers. Health promotion messaging should target kidney, colon, pancreatic, and breast cancers and encourage clinically tested methods of reducing BMI such as increasing personal physical activity and adoption of effective dietary regimes.

Regional Mineral Beneficiation Policy Interventions in the SADC: Stakeholder Perspectives

The Importance of Mineral Beneficiation: Mining is a significant economic activity in most Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, and mineral beneficiation has been identified and controversially discussed as one of the possibilities for industrialisation. The purpose of this article is to study mineral beneficiation policies and practices in the SADC countries with regard to the regional developmental agenda. Methodology and Interventions: With many member countries being economically too small to muster the human and financial resources, the recently adopted Regional Mining Vision (RMV) envisages interventions at a regional level. This study followed a qualitative approach with semi-structured interviews across the region mainly in English and seldom in French. Principal Results: Twenty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts from SADC member countries during the 2019 Mining Indaba. Participants were divided on whether beneficiation should be carried out nationally or in the SADC region. While beneficiation could support value-keeping, key challenges named were infrastructure development (i.e. energy, water), scarce skills, access to technology and related cost, but also lack of free trade and movement. Conclusion: We submit that a more integrated beneficiation strategy for the SADC region, as was being developed through the RMV, would indeed be relevant in the future.

A Foreign Investment Destination Risk Framework: Evaluating the Southern African Development Community Member States

Potential investment risks need to be understood by an investor organisation, which implies that a host country’s environment plays a significant role in attracting foreign investment. This paper’s purpose was to propose a foreign investment risk conceptual framework to serve as a basis for evaluating the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Member States’ investment risk/attractiveness. Firstly, the most appropriate foreign investment risk indicators from the literature were identified to develop a foreign investment risk framework. Ten recent peer‑reviewed studies were used to identify the factors which drive investment risk in emerging markets. We developed a conceptual framework including 16 investment risk indicators grouped into four sections: (i) the business environment, (ii) related taxes on business operations, (iii) the economic environment, and (iv) the human and social environments. Secondly, a comparative analysis of the 16 SADC countries was performed, enabling the ranking of the countries in quadrants of investment risk/attractiveness. Data were downloaded from theGlobalEconomy.com (2022) website for six years, from 2015 to 2020. The literature suggests many investment risk indicators which are grouped differently by researchers to form a conceptual framework to evaluate investment risk. This study’s contribution is that the most popular/prevalent risk indicators were identified to develop the new proposed framework. Furthermore, evaluating the SADC region may also serve as an example of investment risk/attractiveness assessment of emerging markets or least‑developed countries. The practical implication of this paper is that the proposed framework enables transferability since potential investors may connect the fundamentals of this study with their own investigation.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS TAX PAYMENT: A SURVEY-BASED EVIDENCE FROM SADC COUNTRIES

Tax non-compliance and its consequences have become a subject of increasing interest in academic literature and economic forums worldwide. While most studies on this issue focus on developed countries, there is a growing trend to explore understudied developing countries. To fill this gap, we investigated tax evasion drivers in eight Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, using the round 7 Afrobarometer survey data conducted in 2019-2020. The survey's comprehensive coverage of economic, political, and sociological questions made it one of the most extensive surveys on the continent. We used logistic regression and Empirical Bayesian estimation and found that political legitimacy significantly influences tax evasion behavior in the SADC region. Individuals residing within the SADC are more likely to engage in tax evasion activities when they perceive a lack of access to fundamental services provided by their governments or harbor doubts about the legitimacy of political institutions. Therefore, policymakers in SADC member states should prioritize reviewing and evaluating economic policies, the performance and efficiency of political institutions, and more inclusive governance. We suggest that a strong and legitimate political framework, coupled with effective service delivery, can contribute to reducing tax evasion rates and enhancing public welfare outcomes. Institutional reforms, increased transparency, accountability, and a more inclusive governance system are necessary for fostering a culture of compliance and trust, leading to improved revenue collection.

Trade openness and non-income poverty in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries: A panel Autoregressive Distributive Lag (ARDL) analysis

Trade openness and non-income poverty in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries: A panel Autoregressive Distributive Lag (ARDL) analysis

Too poor to be clean? A quantile ARDL assessment of the environmental Kuznets curve in SADC countries

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to investigate whether there is a fit of the environmental Kuznets curve for Southern African development community (SADC) countries. To this end, we estimate a quadratic regression between greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, N20, CH4), per capita income and other controls, using the pooled mean group (PMG) and quantile autoregressive distributive lag (QARDL) models applied to annual data spanning from 1990 to 2021. On one hand, the PMG (Pooled mean group) estimators reveal an EKC fit for CO2 emissions (turning point = $4675), an inverse EKC for CH4 emissions (turning point = $6310) and no fit for the N20 emissions. On the other hand, the QARDL estimators further reveal more significant effects existing at the tail end distributions of the curve for all classes of emissions with turning points in the upper (lower) quantiles being higher (lower) than those from the PMG estimators. Further analysis informs us that only Seychelles have crossed the EKC ‘turning point’ at the upper quantile while the remaining countries are ‘too poor to go green.’ Overall, these findings have implications for the debate on climate justice in Africa.

Compliance with the Nagoya protocol in the Southern African Development Community

The Nagoya Protocol (2010) provides an international framework for access and benefits sharing of genetic resources. In the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the means to deliver compliance with the principles of the Nagoya Protocol is through national-scale legislative and management frameworks. However, there may be differences between the policies and practices of individual countries within the SADC region that may limit the effectiveness of how the principles of the Nagoya Protocol are enacted. This study describes the legislative and management frameworks for enacting the principles of the Nagoya Protocol that are found in each of the sixteen SADC countries. Particular emphasis is placed on strategies for genetic and associated biological resource diversity and management, the role of stakeholders, local communities and traditional (indigenous) knowledge systems in each country. Results show that the legislative and management frameworks for managing the Nagoya Protocol are highly variable across the SADC region. There are also variable levels of engagement with the Access and Benefit-Sharing Clearing House (which relates to the implementation of the principles of the Nagoya Protocol), and with reporting to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture which is a requirement of compliance. This study makes recommendations for the sharing of best practices for access and benefit sharing, and for developing protocols for engagement with local communities and other stakeholders on genetic and biological resource exploitation across the SADC region.

Tourism-income inequality Nexus in Africa: evidence from SADC countries

ABSTRACT The tourism sector is one of the fastest-growing services sub-sectors worldwide and promises to unlock job opportunities and improve social inclusion outcomes in developing countries. We focused on the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, which houses developing countries with high income inequality and constitutes attractive tourist centres in sub-Saharan Africa. We employed both the disaggregated and composite indicators of tourism development to investigate the tourism-income inequality nexus in the SADC region from 2010 to 2019. Utilizing the panel quantile regression approach, our overall results suggest that tourism development is inequality-worsening, and this is robust to both the composite tourism index and the individual tourism indicators (except in a few instances). While we established that net FDI inflows improve the inequality outcomes in the region, less corruption worsens inequality (except in a few cases). Accordingly, we offer relevant policy options for the governments of the SADC region.

Human Capital and Environmental Sustainability Nexus in Selected SADC Countries

This paper sought to examine the nexus between human capital and environmental sustainability in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. This contemporary topic has not received much attention in the region, hence the need to investigate the nexus between human capital and environmental sustainability. The paper used one of the most recent methodologies, namely, the pooled mean group (PMG) estimation technique, to assess this relationship from 1980 to 2021. The findings of the study are that human capital increases environmental sustainability in the long run in SADC countries. This implies that as human capital increases, countries will see an increase in technological innovations and research and development (R&amp;D), enabling the mitigation of environmental degradation in the region. Therefore, it is imperative for the region to embark on human capital programs that improve environmental sustainability.

The impact of COVID‐19 on cybersecurity awareness‐raising and mindset in the southern African development community (SADC)

AbstractAt the beginning of 2020, the world came to a stand‐still when governments across the globe decided to enter states of ‘emergency’ or ‘disaster’ over the breakout of the COVID‐19 pandemic. The responses to the pandemic included stringent movement restrictions and hygiene advice preventing face‐to‐face interactions. As a result, many activities, including schooling, working, and shopping were moved online, drastically increasing exposure to cyber threats and risks. It is unclear if and how the rapid increase in internet use corresponded to an improvement in cybersecurity mindset development in countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). This paper explores the effect of the increase in digital technology usage due to the COVID‐19 pandemic restrictions on the relationship between cybersecurity awareness‐raising initiatives and the development of higher levels of cybersecurity mindset in Botswana, Lesotho, and Malawi. These three countries have a similar cybersecurity footprint and an average cybersecurity capacity level for the region. The research applies a comparative multiple case study approach relying on a thematic review of the literature and related documents, supported by in‐depth interviews with purposefully selected key informants from the three selected SADC countries. Findings suggest that since the start of the COVID‐19 pandemic, awareness‐raising programs have gained some momentum in our selected countries, but the cybersecurity mindset has not improved. That was attributed to low frequency and poor quality of campaigns added to the lack of training, education and lived experience. The paper highlights the need to increase the frequency and improve the quality of programmes, for greater impact on the development of local cybersecurity mindsets.

Pharmaceutical patent law and policy in Africa: a survey of selected SADC member states

AbstractThe paper surveys the intellectual property (IP) laws of seven Southern African Development Community countries to better understand the nature, scope, and depth of their patent laws with particular focus on their utilisation of TRIPS flexibilities to facilitate pharmaceutical access. The selected countries – Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe – represent a mix of both major and modest economies. While the current literature contains widespread assertions on the impact and effect of TRIPS on access to medicines in these countries and less-developed countries in general, this paper finds that the countries lack explicit and workable provisions implementing key TRIPS flexibilities. Hence, available TRIPS flexibilities have not been well utilised and it is often the complicated and unworkable domestic framework – rather than TRIPS – which becomes the stumbling block to pharmaceutical access. Another major finding is that patents may not be a major impediment in the region given that few patents and even fewer pharmaceutical patents are filed. The paper argues that since the surveyed countries are mainly net IP importers with similar developmental contexts and aspirations, the best approach would be to fully take advantage of existing flexibilities and more aggressively leverage policy space to engender access to cheaper medicines.

Development of a checklist for the assessment of pharmacovigilance guidelines in Southern Africa: a document review.

National regulatory systems in Southern Africa reflect various stages of maturity, and pharmacovigilance (PV) practices are not aligned. In the absence of guidance for formulating PV guidelines in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, this study aimed to create a checklist that may be used to assess the rigour of PV guidelines in this region and provide guidance for the National Medicines Regulatory Agency (NMRA) authors. A document analysis was performed based on harmonised international guidelines (n = 22) that prescribed methods of PV regulation to identify themes and items to incorporate into a checklist. The contextualisation of the checklist to the African pharmaceutical environment was accomplished by referencing peer-reviewed journal articles (n = 7). The checklist was subjected to face and content validation by non-experts and PV experts. The document review yielded 5 themes, 18 sub-themes, and 73 items structured into the checklist. Themes encompassed PV systems, definitions, individual case safety reporting, aggregate reporting, and risk management. Under PV systems, aspects of the quality management system were outlined, that is, the legal basis for PV, a description of the marketing authorisation holder's (MAH's) PV system, archiving of data, contracting of PV tasks, and the duties of the person responsible for the MAH's PV obligations. Definitions of the key terms and major stakeholders were identified. Reporting of individual case safety reports (ICSRs) was explicated by considering the criteria for reporting, categories of reportable information, expedited reporting requirements, reporting timelines, and ICSR reporting format. Aggregate report submission during the development and post-marketing phases was addressed. Risk management encompassed signal detection, re-evaluation of the benefit-risk ratio, the safety decision-making process, risk management planning, risk minimisation and safety communication. The developed checklist can contribute towards assisting SADC NMRAs to formulate national PV guidelines that reflect current international practice, with local context incorporated. Developing a checklist for the evaluation of medicine safety guidelines in Southern Africa Introduction: In Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, the guidelines for medicine safety [pharmacovigilance (PV)] that marketing authorisation holders (MAHs) and healthcare professionals need to adhere to, are not aligned. We saw the need to develop a checklist that can be used to evaluate these guidelines.Methods: We studied international documents issued by the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH), the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA). On the organisational websites, we obtained 22 documents and identified 73 checklist items. All the items were arranged under 5 themes and 18 sub-themes to create the checklist. We adapted the checklist to the local context by using seven journal articles addressing PV concerns in Africa. Experts checked the content and usability of the checklist.Results: The themes were PV systems, definitions, individual case safety reporting (ICSR), combined reporting and risk management. PV systems had six sub-themes: legal structure, description of the MAH's PV system, contractual agreements, information storage, the qualified person responsible for PV (QPPV) and where the QPPV is located. We included the definitions of keywords and role-players. The ICSR theme had five sub-themes, i.e. criteria for reporting, categories of reportable information, expedited reporting, reporting timelines, and reporting format. Submission of summary reports comprised an overview of the safety profile of a medicine once it is approved by regulators, as well as during clinical trials. Risk management included signal detection, re-evaluation of the benefit-risk ratio, safety decision-making process, risk management planning, risk minimisation, and safety communication. The checklist is applied by allocating yes/no scoring per item.Conclusion: The checklist may be used by regulators within SADC to assess their PV guidelines for alignment with international standards and suitability to the local environment.

THE IMPACT OF EXCHANGE RATE, INTEREST RATE, AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SELECTED SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC) COUNTRIES: AN ARDL APPROACH

This study focuses on the impact of exchange rates, interest rates, and international trade in 12 selected Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. The lack of studies from Africa that investigated the impact between exchange rate, interest rate, and international trade served as a catalyst for this study. Additionally, this study employed the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) method to examine the impact of exchange rate, interest rate, and international trade for the period 2000 to 2021. Therefore, using the ARDL technique, the study found a significant negative impact between exchange rate and interest rate in the long run, while international trade had a positive but insignificant impact. Due to the negative exchange rate findings, this study concludes that the SADC countries must develop strategies to promote international trade, reduce trade deficits, and encourage economic growth. On the other hand, this study contributes to the intricate interplay of exchange rates, interest rates, and international trade in SADC by providing insights for policymakers to enhance economic stability and long-term growth ultimately benefiting the region's economy and society.