Southeast Asian Archipelago Research Articles

Structural learning of mixed noisy-OR Bayesian networks

In this paper we discuss learning Bayesian networks whose conditional probability tables are either Noisy-OR models or general conditional probability tables. We refer to these models as Mixed Noisy-OR Bayesian Networks. To learn their structure, we modify the Bayesian Information Criterion used for standard Bayesian networks to reflect the number of parameters of a Noisy-OR model. We prove that the log-likelihood function of a Noisy-OR model has a unique maximum and adapt the EM-learning method for the leaky Noisy-OR model. We propose a structure learning algorithm that learns optimal Mixed Noisy-OR Bayesian Networks. We evaluate the proposed approach on synthetic data, where it performs substantially better than standard Bayesian networks. We perform experiments with Bipartite Noisy-OR Bayesian networks of different complexity to find out when the results of Mixed Noisy-OR Bayesian Networks are significantly better than the results of standard Bayesian networks and when they perform similarly. We also study how different penalties based on the number of model parameters affect the quality of the results. Finally, we apply the suggested approach to a problem from the domain of linguistics. Specifically, we use Mixed Noisy-OR Bayesian Networks to model the spread of loanwords in the South-East Asian Archipelago. We perform numerical experiments in which we compare the prediction ability of standard Bayesian networks with Mixed Noisy-OR Bayesian networks and test different pruning methods to reduce the number of parent sets considered.

Unraveling the Enigma of Funan Culture in the Southeast Asian Archipelago: Archaeological Insights and Historical Significance

This research embarks on a multidisciplinary journey to unravel the mysteries of Funan culture, an ancient civilization nestled within the Southeast Asian archipelago. By employing a combination of archaeological excavation, artifact analysis, historical inscriptions, and environmental data, our study delves into the historical context, societal structures, and lasting impact of Funan culture. Our findings shed light on the architectural sophistication of this civilization, highlighting the organization of its urban centers and the enduring presence of religious beliefs. Artifacts, including intricately designed pottery and opulent gold jewelry, reveal a society that celebrated artistry and actively engaged in far-reaching trade networks. Inscriptions in Sanskrit unveil the governance structures and spiritual inclinations of Funan culture, offering a historical voice to this enigmatic civilization. Furthermore, environmental data provide insights into the ecological context in which this culture thrived. The implications of our findings extend beyond historical excavation, enriching our understanding of cross-cultural interactions, early state formation, cultural diversity, and economic interdependencies. Moreover, our research forges a vital connection between the past and the present, enabling contemporary communities to embrace their historical roots and fostering a deeper sense of cultural continuity, economic resilience, and political heritage. This journey through Funan culture is a testament to the enduring power of history and archaeology to illuminate the past and connect it to the contemporary world.

Odra: Naval and Merchant Vessels (Maritime science heritage: Sanatan Nau vigyan: Select discussions)

Odra (riparian) is a historical entity, a synonym for the Kalinga empire (India) which was maritime in nature and had a robust seafaring heritage. In this paper, the south-east Asian archipelago nexus is touched upon, along with less well known aspects of Indo-Asian maritime history. Historically-dated artifacts are presented; naval and merchandise issues ranging from the period c.1200 to 1900 C.E., are discussed. A possible depiction of the empire’s fleet (c.12th C.E) is conceptualized. Boat-related numerical calculations are adduced, and associated physics and mechanics of ocean sailing are discussed. Ancient high speed and stable barges are discussed. In-continuum heritage practice and real-time modeling are presented.

A Reflection of “Indonesian Maritime Fulcrum” Initiative: Maritime History and Geopolitical Changes

The announcement of a maritime economic initiative known as the 21st Century Maritime Silk Route (MSR) by Chinese President Xi Jinping in 2013 created a new paradigm shift in the geo-economy and geo-politics of countries in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. With this initiative, China aims to rebuild maritime lines in the seas and oceans where China once was regarded as one of the world's leading powers. In contrast to countries in Southeast Asia, which still hold divergent views on the Chinese initiative, Indonesia sees it as an opportunity to develop regions that have long been marginalized from development. It is in line with the shift in Indonesia’s global economic-political agenda in the 21st century through a doctrine known as "Indonesia as a Maritime Fulcrum," which was initiated by “Jokowi” Widodo and Jusuf Kalla in 2014. Taking into account the importance of this idea in Indonesia's geo-economic and geo-political agenda, this study is to reflect on Indonesia’s history as a global maritime and trade power before it was undermined by the Dutch occupation. In addition, using historical approach, this study aims to see and evaluate how the idea of "Indonesia as a Maritime Fulcrum" can restore Indonesia’s reputation as a major maritime power in the Southeast Asian archipelago.

Transcultural journeys: The disembedding and re-embedding of Sepik art

Artefacts have always been part of inter- and transcultural journeys in the Sepik. People and artefacts had been continuously moving throughout the area in pre-colonial New Guinea due to migrations, exchange and plundering. However, the scope and the quality of these journeys changed fundamentally when the process of disembedding of artefacts started with the collecting activities of explorers in the colonial area. Against the backdrop of the transmaritime journeys of textiles from India to the Southeast Asian archipelago in pre-colonial times, this article highlights the special features of the Sepik case. The dislocation of predominantly old and “authentic” Sepik artefacts to places in the western world resulted in their transformation and re-embedding in new settings. A proliferation of transformations and reinterpretations of Sepik art began with the transcultural journeys of artefacts to multiple destinations since the intensification of globalisation, resulting in stories about the artefacts with conflicting interpretations and consequences.

The Javanese Panji Story: its transformation and dissemination into the performing arts in Southeast Asia

<p>This paper studies descriptively several versions of Javanese Panji Story with its transformation and dissemination into the performing arts found in Southeast Asia. Accordingly, there are versions varied not only regarding its stories, locations, events, and the style of its narratives but also the flow of the stories. So many other versions have not been described here in this paper just to imagine how this 13th century Javanese literature has turned out to become so many versions. Moreover, the story has spread out not only in Indonesia but also throughout the Southeast Asian archipelago. The writer found that authenticity is not the concern because the original version of the Panji Story was not existed and thus texts can be in so many forms. However, what was overwhelming is that the story had been transformed into so many genres of performing arts in Southeast Asia, such as in Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Myanmar, the former state of Burma. The study found that the performing styles of Panji or Inou in Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Myanmar shared the same styles as typical classical dance of Royal Palace that performed high standards of performances such as glorifying model of costumes and accompanied by aesthetically qualified Royal Palace Music Ensembles.</p>

Soil

In the last half-century, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand have experienced humanitarian, political, and economic crises, many of which directly involved international causes and consequences. In each country, the cultural identity of both the nation-state and local populations has undergone fundamental, and often severe, upheavals and transformations. Reflecting on this overall context of three Southeast Asian countries, Soil is a dance theater work directed by dance theater scholar-artist Michael Sakamoto and co-written and co-choreographed with the performers, classical Cambodian dancer Chey Chankethya, contemporary Vietnamese-American dancer Nguyen Nguyen, and neo-traditional Thai dancer Waewdao Sirisook. Based on the dancers' lives as well as the crises of recent decades in their home countries, Soil addresses issues of: contested social values and bodies politic; authorial agency around cultural heritage, commodification, and embodiment; and East-West transnational identity.In this paper, Sakamoto explores Soil's background, development, and status as a performative commentary on the writing, dancing, and circulation of diverse cultural identities in contemporary global society. Specifically, he examines the ensemble's creative process of dialectic embodiment through the body in crisis, a philosophical and methodological principle rooted in butoh founder Hijikata Tatsumi's writings and choreographic approach. Sakamoto's method stems from his butoh practice, emphasizing image-based movement and performing contradictory/dialectic tensions within socialized personae. The artists integrate body images, situations, cultural behaviors, and the tension of multiple languages to create a remixed vocabulary of shared movement and visual/textual elements from each person's dance form, culture and history.Soil further manifests a dialectic engagement by connecting quintessentially American stories of migration and transformation with the transnational realities of the Southeast Asian archipelago, which represents much of the USA's fraught, ambiguous international presence, especially since the Vietnam War. The dancers reflect many changes in Asian societies, where globalization infiltrating ethnic, land-based and linguistic traditions makes for porous, contested borders.

Islam di Nusantara pada Abad ke-10 Masehi sebagaimana Tercermin dalam Tinggalan Budaya

Muslim merchants were active as traders from the seventh century. Several archipelago Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms established com-mercial and diplomatic connections with Middle Eastern Islamic rulers. Archaeological evidence pointing to this fact has been found at a shipwreck site in the Java Sea near Cirebon. Among the discovered trade goods were indications of Islam in the form of a stamp-mould with the inscription asma’ul husna. Although most of the Indonesian community follow Sunni teaching, in practice at this time in Sumatra and Java there are devotees of Syi’ah. Archaeological evidence points that Islam entered Southeast Asian archipelago from Persia via Gujarat, India. The religion was brought by merchants to Southeast Asia, especially to Indonesia and the Malay peninsula.

Oceanographic Currents and Local Ecological Knowledge Indicate, and Genetics Does Not Refute, a Contemporary Pattern of Larval Dispersal for The Ornate Spiny Lobster, Panulirus ornatus in the South-East Asian Archipelago.

Here we utilize a combination of genetic data, oceanographic data, and local ecological knowledge to assess connectivity patterns of the ornate spiny lobster Panulirus ornatus (Fabricius, 1798) in the South-East Asian archipelago from Vietnam to Australia. Partial mitochondrial DNA control region and 10 polymorphic microsatellites did not detect genetic structure of 216 wild P. ornatus samples from Australia, Indonesia and Vietnam. Analyses show no evidence for genetic differentiation among populations (mtDNA control region sequences ΦST = -0.008; microsatellite loci FST = 0.003). A lack of evidence for regional or localized mtDNA haplotype clusters, or geographic clusters of microsatellite genotypes, reveals a pattern of high gene flow in P. ornatus throughout the South-East Asian Archipelago. This lack of genetic structure may be due to the oceanography-driven connectivity of the pelagic lobster larvae between spawning grounds in Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and, possibly, Indonesia. The connectivity cycle necessitates three generations. The lack of genetic structure of P. ornatus population in the South-East Asian archipelago has important implications for the sustainable management of this lobster in that the species within the region needs to be managed as one genetic stock.

Island biogeography from regional to local scales: evidence for a spatially scaled echo pattern of fern diversity in the Southeast Asian archipelago

ABSTRACTAimThe aim of this study was to investigate whether the equilibrium theory of island biogeography (ETIB) is equally applicable at regional and local spatial scales, and whether the ‘echo pattern’, the correlation between regional species pool and local diversity by which the diversity of the regional species pool ‘trickles down’ to local scales, influences local diversity equally across a range of sampling scales.LocationTwelve mountain regions on islands having different sizes, degrees of isolation and environmental conditions in Indonesia and the Philippines.MethodsWe sampled ferns in standardized field plots within a fixed spatial design at six spatial scales (with the grain size varying from plot to island). Using ordinary least squares regression and relative variable importance, we tested for the predictive power of area and isolation as well as of local and regional environmental factors for explaining diversity at the chosen spatial scales.ResultsConsistent with MacArthur and Wilson's ETIB, we found the strongest correlations of area and isolation with diversity at regional scales. The explanatory power of area increased with increasing spatial scale. The strength of the negative relationships among diversity and isolation decreased with increasing spatial scale. We found evidence for an ‘echo pattern’ at large to intermediate but not at small spatial scales.Main conclusionsArea and isolation are strong predictors of biodiversity at regional scales. The size of the species pool has a scale‐dependent influence on diversity at smaller scales but is unimportant at the most local scale, where environmental conditions dominate as predictors of diversity. To make predictions about local diversity on islands it is therefore important to take the scale dependence of the ‘echo pattern’ into account.

Primates

Primates

Population structure of Bactrocera dorsalis s.s., B. papayae and B. philippinensis (Diptera: Tephritidae) in southeast Asia: evidence for a single species hypothesis using mitochondrial DNA and wing-shape data

BackgroundBactrocera dorsalis s.s. is a pestiferous tephritid fruit fly distributed from Pakistan to the Pacific, with the Thai/Malay peninsula its southern limit. Sister pest taxa, B. papayae and B. philippinensis, occur in the southeast Asian archipelago and the Philippines, respectively. The relationship among these species is unclear due to their high molecular and morphological similarity. This study analysed population structure of these three species within a southeast Asian biogeographical context to assess potential dispersal patterns and the validity of their current taxonomic status.ResultsGeometric morphometric results generated from 15 landmarks for wings of 169 flies revealed significant differences in wing shape between almost all sites following canonical variate analysis. For the combined data set there was a greater isolation-by-distance (IBD) effect under a ‘non-Euclidean’ scenario which used geographical distances within a biogeographical ‘Sundaland context’ (r2 = 0.772, P < 0.0001) as compared to a ‘Euclidean’ scenario for which direct geographic distances between sample sites was used (r2 = 0.217, P < 0.01). COI sequence data were obtained for 156 individuals and yielded 83 unique haplotypes with no correlation to current taxonomic designations via a minimum spanning network. beast analysis provided a root age and location of 540kya in northern Thailand, with migration of B. dorsalis s.l. into Malaysia 470kya and Sumatra 270kya. Two migration events into the Philippines are inferred. Sequence data revealed a weak but significant IBD effect under the ‘non-Euclidean’ scenario (r2 = 0.110, P < 0.05), with no historical migration evident between Taiwan and the Philippines. Results are consistent with those expected at the intra-specific level.ConclusionsBactrocera dorsalis s.s., B. papayae and B. philippinensis likely represent one species structured around the South China Sea, having migrated from northern Thailand into the southeast Asian archipelago and across into the Philippines. No migration is apparent between the Philippines and Taiwan. This information has implications for quarantine, trade and pest management.

Macrogeographical variability in the great call of Hylobates agilis: assessing the applicability of vocal analysis in studies of fine‐scale taxonomy of gibbons

Vocal characteristics have been used extensively to distinguish different taxonomic units of gibbons (family Hylobatidae). The agile gibbon (Hylobates agilis) has a disjunct distribution range in the Southeast Asian archipelago (remnants of the former Sunda landmass), and populations on different islands are currently recognized as distinct subspecies or even species. We recorded great calls from female agile gibbons from two populations on Sumatra and two populations on Borneo and examined the vocal variability on four levels: within-individuals, between-individuals, between-populations and between-islands. The primary objective was to evaluate the effect of geographical isolation on variability in song pattern and to test whether proposed island-specific song characteristics exist, reflecting evolutionary divergence between Sumatran and Bornean agile gibbons. One hundred great calls were recorded from 20 females and analyzed for 18 spectral and temporal acoustic parameters. Principal component analysis followed by a nested ANOVA on components revealed a complex pattern of song variability not likely to reflect taxonomic or evolutionary relationship. We found no evidence that Sumatran and Bornean agile gibbons have evolved different vocal characteristics, refuting a distinction between them based on vocal characteristics. A high level of plasticity was found in great calls from the same individual, and generally the inferred pattern of variability suggested that ecological or social factors may confound any genetically based island dialects.

Glimpses of Alternatives: The Uma Lulik of East Timor

A ritual artifact found throughout East Timor in the Southeast Asian Archipelago is a sacred house, ritual house, or cult house, known locally as the uma lulik. This artifact illuminates certain of the different perspectives on the term 'belief' offered by a number of contributors to this issue. By identifying four categories of Timorese 'believer' and 'nonbeliever', the present article attempts to support recent findings in the field of material culture that suggest artifacts may not be passive recipients of values invested in them by their creators. Instead, they might be more usefully regarded as objects engaged in continuous, dialectic interconnections with the human beings whom they serve.

Polymorphic microsatellite markers for Philippine tarsiers (Tarsius syrichta)

This study reports the isolation and characterization of eight microsatellite markers for the study of Philippine tarsiers (Tarsius syrichta), small primates endemic to this Southeast Asian archipelago. The markers were used to screen 14 Tarsius syrichta for allelic diversity. This suite of highly polymorphic microsatellites provides the first chance to genetically study parentage and dispersal patterns in Philippine tarsiers.

Naval Power in the Revolutionary Era

Discussion about military modernisation and revolution and total warfare in the period 1775–1815 focuses on land conflict in Europe, and generally ignores or underrates the importance of naval deve...

Phylogeography of human lymphatic filarial parasite, Wuchereria bancrofti in India

Wuchereria bancrofti, a nematode parasite causing human lymphatic filariasis is widely distributed in India. The phylogeography of this parasite was studied by constructing RAPD profiles of parasite populations collected from 71 microfilaria carriers residing in different geoclimatic regions of India. The analysis showed that the phylogeography of W. bancrofti populations is complex, with a high genetic divergence and gene flow among populations. The total genetic diversity ( H T) and genetic differentiation ( G ST) estimated for all the parasite populations were 0.0926 and 0.5859, respectively. The gene flow ( N m) between different regions indicated that two strains of W. bancrofti were prevalent in the country, one in the eastern side and the other on the western side of the Western Ghats. A highly significant genetic differentiation ( F ST [theta] = 0.7978) was estimated between these two strains ( χ 2 = 308.2789; P < 0.001). The gene flow between these strains was very low (0.2338). These two strains appear to have drifted genetically because of their geographic isolation by this thickly forested mountain range. The strain in the eastern side was found to be monophyletic in origin and is undergoing genetic divergence as the major parasite population in the country, spanning from eastern peninsular region to the northern plains. The variable geoclimatic factors and the antifilarial chemotherapeutical pressure on the parasite, which is in place for the past half a century, might have contributed for the high genetic heterogeneity its strains/populations in the country. The route of entry of the parasite into Indian sub-continent possibly appeared to be from an ancient origin from the countries of the Southeast Asian archipelago, through the eastern coastal line of the southern peninsula.

The Roots of ASEAN: Regional Identities in the Strait of Melaka Region Circa 1500 C.E

AbstractSoutheast Asian sources that report regional connection with the Majapahit and Angkor polities reflect upon a rapidly changing fourteenth and fifteenth century world order, the result of new trading opportunities as Europeans were becoming more direct participants in affairs beyond their Western home-lands. In the face of the individualistic and destructive tendencies of the wider global community circa 1500, in the Strait of Melaka region there was less dislocation and isolation than is supposed by many twentieth century scholars. Despite the number of political and religious transitions underway, in the Southeast Asian archipelago and mainland there was a sense of regional self-confidence and progress among societies who had enjoyed over two hundred years of widespread socio-economic success. These successes were the product of the functional international, regional, and local networks of communication, as well as a common heritage that had developed in the Strait of Melaka region during the pre-1500 era. This study not only addresses the role of Majapahit and Angkor in the shaping of regional inclusiveness circa 1500, but also explores the enduring (and often exclusive) legacy of these two early cultural centers among Southeast Asia's twentieth century polities.

Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages (review)

??? COHPAnATIST and the composer are identified with an "ewige Geisterstadt, city ofspirits or spiritual cities [. . .] the common homeland of all arts, a land in which all kinds of artists communicate through a universal metaphoric language" (61). This "city" suggests the idea ofa community to which we could add the figures oftheflâneur and the bohemian. The author's research centers on concepts ofperformance, interpretation, language , and music. By analyzing several concepts ofmusic, verbal art, and composition , she discusses the complex relation between sounds and words, as well as the Saussurean interaction ofsignifiers and signifieds, langue and parole. The abundant corpus ofthinkers to which she refers belongs to the French and German schools (Benveniste, Foucault, Barthes, Benjamin) and includes some ofthe most prestigious scholars who developed their research in France (Saussure, Ruwet). Bernstein also provides a solid basis for an ongoing discussion of the relationship among musicians (Liszt, Chopin) and writers ofthe Romantic century (Heine, Baudelaire). At the same time the author discusses the predominant styles ofthe period and encourages us to re-evaluate the function ofthe arabesques (and other forms ofdigression ) that inaugurate a figurative space (32), and to redefine the characteristics ofwhat might be called a "personal style." While analyzing Liszt and discussing the concept oíotherness, Bernstein reveals her doubts about her task: "What I present, therefore, cannot be 'knowledge.' It cannot be knowledge, because there is nothing to ground these similarities, no essence or substratum ofLiszt" (1 14). Thus, the author projects herselfas a voice that questions her status as a traditional reader. In her book, Susan Bernstein confirms the importance ofthe dialogue between tradition and interdisciplinary studies. She also prepares the way for a better understanding of the societies (and artists) influenced by France and Germany in the nineteenth century, such as those in Latin America (Bello, Heredia, Echeverría, Gertrudis de Avellaneda, Mera, Montalvo, et al.), who reproduced in a very contradictory way many ofthe hallmarks ofthe European civilization. Fernando IturburuState University ofNew York-Plattsburgh ANDREW DALBY. Dictionary ofLanguages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages. New York: Columbia UP, 1999. xvi + 734 pp. How does one review a dictionary, I wondered, never having attempted the task before. The problem commences already with the word dictionary itself, primarily because ceci n'est pas un dictionnaire. Rather, this reference work constitutes a surprising hybrid ofdictionary, encyclopedia, and geo-linguistic guide. On the one hand it provides a wealth oflinguistic information, but equally important, it invites us to consider the implicit questions raised by a dictionary oflanguages, or by any dictionary for that matter. The questions arise immediately due to the author's selection of only four hundred "major languages ofthe 20th century" (vii) out ofa potential pool ofover five thousand (spoken in 1997). Dalby's criteria could, I imagine , provide for hours ofheated debate: "These are the languages that the 20th century needs to know aboutfirst: national languages of independent countries, languages ofimportant minorities that will make news, classical languages ofthe past" (vii). But he also uses a statistical rationale, including in the book, for the most part, only languages spoken by more than a million people. But this "statistic" Vol·. 24 (2000): 185 BOOK NOTES is, in itself, at issue because ofthe potential unreliability ofcensuses or other measuring devices used to determine numbers ofspeakers. Dalby raises most of the potential conundrums himself in the introduction, which provides an overview oflinguistic fields and issues such as proto-languages, tracing language history, names oflanguages, and in an interesting section, "Facts, real facts and statistics," concerning the difficulties ofdetermining how many people really speak a given language. As we leam, almost every aspect oflanguage is political. Even seemingly innocuous statistics like the number of speakers are fraught with sociopolitical implications. Emotive issues such as nationalism or minority status might affect those who self-identify as speakers of a particular language. Even names oflanguages, upon which literary scholars probably rarely reflect, can also be politically charged: "Until the 1940s," Dalby tells us, "the lingua franca ofthe southeast Asian archipelago was called 'Malay' by nearly everybody. For newly independent Indonesia the term had been found unsuitable because of its connection with Malaya, still British-ruled. So the form ofMalay...

Hong Merchants of Canton: Chinese Merchants in Sino-Western Trade, 1684-1798 (review)

© 1999 by University ofHawaii Press Reviews 75 came the sole measure ofloyalty, and intellectuals like Deng Tuo were therefore regarded as enemies ofthe regime. This volume contributes ably to the growing scholarship on the dynamics of Mao Zedong and the people and groups he considered to be his opponents. It especially advances our understanding ofthe role ofthe intelligentsia in Mao's new China. Peggy Denning Peggy Denning is aprofessor ofhistory at Slippery Rock University specializing in Chinese history during the Sino-Japanese War. Weng Eang Cheong. HongMerchants ofCanton: Chinese Merchants in Sino-Western Trade, 1684-1798. Nordic Institute ofAsian Studies Monograph Series, No. 70. Richmond, United Kingdom: Curzon Press, 1997. iv, 376 pp. Hardcover, isbn 0-7007-0361-6. Weng Eang Cheong has written an exhaustive study of the Hong merchants of Canton—whom he defines as "a new type ofclient-merchant" (p. 348)—in the century preceding the decades of opium importation and the incessant conflict between China and Great Britain that has dominated modern scholarly thinking about the Canton system. The author argues that modern historians "have given little attention to the [eighteenth-century] merchants," with the result that "[e]xisting works present incomplete and sometimes distorted views" (pp. 14, 16). His intention is to rectify this problem. The study opens with the year 1684, the year that the Qing court allowed the resumption ofmaritime trade after a twenty-seven-year "closed country" interlude during which the Manchus secured control over their southern frontier while banning all maritime commerce, and it concludes with the failure in 1798 of Geowqua, whom the author defines as "a trader oflittle importance, who, however, is significant [in the author's revised interpretation] ofthe Hong merchants ' history because he was the last ofa type and a generation of Hong merchants " (p. 18). In between, Cheong argues, the trade and the Chinese merchants who attended it evolved through three significant stages: (1) 1684-ca. 1740, during which time the merchants were generalist traders with wide personal experience in the "junk trade," the maritime exchange between China and the archipelago lands ofSoutheast Asia that was controlled by Chinese and indigenous Southeast 76 China Review International: Vol. 6, No. ?, Spring 1999 Asian merchants; (2) ca. 1740-ca. 1760, when the traders became more narrowly defined specialists dealing with European chartered companies such as the British East India Company, a new participant that introduced unprecedented levels of demand on the trade as it came to dominate the European side of the exchange; and (3) ca. 1760-1798, when the chartered companies were either entirely displaced , as in the case of the French or the Dutch, or complemented, as in the case of the East India Company, by an expanding "country trade," the private trade running between China and India that once again restructured the fiscal demands on the Chinese merchants, who had to adapt to the pressures of selling imported goods—woolens, raw cotton, and later opium—rather than just receiving specie. Cheong traces the fortunes of the Hong merchants through the eighteenth century, demonstrating that they were increasingly incapable ofaccommodating to the expanding and changing demands of the trade, consequently falling into ever deeper and unresolvable debt. He portrays the Chinese merchants through the first decades of the 1700s as innovative generalists, when the Europeans were only one factor in a thriving regional trade system that stretched from Nagasaki in the northeast to Malacca and Penang in the southwest. Many owned their own vessels—the Chinese junks that had been fixtures in the many ports of the Southeast Asian archipelago for centuries—and had gained their own experience abroad. These merchants, many ofwhom the author identifies as natives of Fujian Province who were "itinerants" in Canton, procured their own trade goods, managed their own transactions, and avoided getting into debt. By the period 1720-1740, however, the character ofthe trade with the Europeans was changing. Faced with growing European competition, the author explains, the traditional junk trade collapsed, robbing the merchants of an important source of income. This in turn led to problems in financing trade with the increasingly demanding charter companies. Gradually the merchants found themselves squeezed between "cash advances from the foreigners and the...