South Wales Child Development Study Research Articles

Contact with child protection services and subsequent rates of first police contact as a person of interest, victim or witness in early life

PurposeChild maltreatment is known to be associated with risk of later offending and victimisation in adolescence and adulthood, but only a few studies have examined justice system contact in childhood and none have focused on police contact. This study investigated the time to first contact with police in childhood (aged 13 years and younger) among children with prior child protection services contact. MethodsUsing administrative data for 91,631 children from the New South Wales Child Development Study, Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were used to investigate the time to first contact with the police (for any reason, and specifically as a ‘person of interest’, ‘victim’ or ‘witness’) associated with prior child protection contact, during the observation period from birth to age 13 years. Multivariate models controlled for sex, Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander background, and socioeconomic disadvantage. Subgroup analyses were also conducted for boys and girls separately. ResultsAmong the 14,323 children with any police contact by age 13 years, around half (52.3 %) had prior contact with the child protection system. Higher rates of police contact for any reason (HR = 4.45 [95 % CI = 4.08–4.86]), and as a person of interest (HR = 9.57 [95 % CI = 6.85–13.38]), victim (HR = 4.49 [95 % CI = 4.18–5.05]), or witness (HR = 9.56 [95 % CI = 7.19–12.69]) were associated with child protection services contact. Effect sizes were similar for boys and girls. ConclusionsEarly interventions that specifically aim to prevent early contact with the justice system among vulnerable children and their families involved with child protection services are required.

Cohort Profile Update: The New South Wales Child Development Study (NSW-CDS) - Wave 3 (child age ∼18 years).

Cohort Profile Update: The New South Wales Child Development Study (NSW-CDS) - Wave 3 (child age ∼18 years).

Levels of Involvement with Child Protection Services Associated with Early Adolescent Police Contact as a Victim and Person of Interest.

The relationship between childhood maltreatment and subsequent offending/victimization is well established. However, the magnitude of this relationship for different levels of child protection services (CPS) involvement is poorly understood, due to measurement issues, lack of longitudinal data, and reliance on reports of substantiated maltreatment, which can underestimate the impact of maltreatment. This study examined associations between CPS involvement during childhood (ages 0 to <11 years) and police services contact (as a victim and/or a person of interest) for criminal incidents in early adolescence (11 to ~14 years), differentiated according to levels of CPS involvement (i.e., no risk of significant harm [non-ROSH], unsubstantiated ROSH, substantiated ROSH, and out-of-home care; each examined relative to no CPS contact). Data for 71,465 children were drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study, an intergenerational, longitudinal investigation that uses administrative records from CPS and police alongside other health, justice, and education data. Multinomial regression analyses were conducted to determine associations between increasing levels of CPS involvement and police contact as a victim only, a person of interest only, and as both victim and person of interest while accounting for covariates (i.e., child's sex, Aboriginal, and/or Torres Strait Islander background, socioeconomic status, maternal age at child's birth, and parental offending history). Children exposed to any of the four levels of CPS involvement had higher odds of police contact, relative to children with no CPS involvement. Odds ratios were higher for contact with police as both a victim and a person of interest, compared to police contact as a victim or a person of interest only. These findings highlight that children with even unsubstantiated CPS reports (i.e., non-ROSH and unsubstantiated ROSH reports) are at heightened risk of police contact compared to children who are unknown to CPS, underlining the need to support all families in contact with CPS.

Cumulative comorbidity between neurodevelopmental, internalising, and externalising disorders in childhood: a network approach

Cumulative comorbidity of mental disorders is common, but the extent and patterns of comorbid psychopathology in childhood are not well established. The current study aimed to elucidate the emergent patterns of cumulative mental disorder comorbidity in children using network analysis of diagnoses recorded between birth and age 12 years. Participants were 90,269 children (mean age 12.7 years; 51.8% male) within the New South Wales Child Development Study (NSW-CDS)—a longitudinal record-linkage cohort study of Australian children born in NSW between 2002 and 2005. Binary indicators for eight types of mental disorder were derived from administrative health records. Patterns of conditional association between mental disorders were assessed utilising network analysis. Of 90,269 children, 2268 (2.5%) had at least one mental disorder by age 12 years; of the 2268 children who had at least one mental disorder by age 12 years, 461 (20.3%) were diagnosed with two or more different disorders out of the eight disorder types included in analyses. All disorders were either directly or indirectly interconnected, with childhood affective and emotional disorders and developmental disorders being most central to the network overall. Mental disorder nodes aggregated weakly (modularity = 0.185) into two communities, representative of internalising and externalising disorders, and neurodevelopmental and sleep disorders. Considerable sex differences in the structure of the mental disorder comorbidity networks were also observed. Developmental and childhood affective and emotional disorders appear to be key to mental disorder comorbidity in childhood, potentially reflecting that these disorders share symptoms in common with many other disorders.

Item response theory analysis of self-reported social–emotional learning competencies in an Australian population cohort aged 11 years.

Childhood social and emotional competencies are recognized as teachable skills affecting well-being and developmental outcomes across the life span. This study sought to develop and validate a brief self-report measure of social-emotional competencies in middle childhood. The study used items from the 2015 Middle Childhood Survey, administered to a representative subsample of the New South Wales Child Development Study cohort, comprising sixth grade students (n = 26,837; aged 11-12 years) attending primary school in New South Wales, Australia. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses assessed the latent structure of social-emotional competencies, and item response theory and construct validity analyses evaluated the reliability, validity, and psychometric properties of the derived measure. A correlated five-factor model outperformed other latent structures (one-factor, higher order, and bifactor models) and was consistent with the framework developed by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning that informs the Australian school-based social-emotional learning curriculum, incorporating the following: Self-Awareness; Self-Management; Social Awareness; Relationship Skills; and Responsible Decision-Making. This brief (20-item), psychometrically sound, self-report measure of social-emotional competencies in middle childhood provides capacity for exploration of these skills as mediators and moderators of developmental outcomes across the life span. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental mental disorders and offspring schizotypy in middle childhood: an intergenerational record linkage study

PurposeTo investigate relationships between distinct schizotypy risk profiles in childhood and the full spectrum of parental mental disorders.MethodsParticipants were 22,137 children drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study, for whom profiles of risk for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders in middle childhood (age ~ 11 years) were derived in a previous study. A series of multinomial logistic regression analyses examined the likelihood of child membership in one of three schizotypy profiles (true schizotypy, introverted schizotypy, and affective schizotypy) relative to the children showing no risk, according to maternal and paternal diagnoses of seven types of mental disorders.ResultsAll types of parental mental disorders were associated with membership in all childhood schizotypy profiles. Children in the true schizotypy group were more than twice as likely as children in the no risk group to have a parent with any type of mental disorder (unadjusted odds ratio [OR] = 2.27, 95% confidence intervals [CI] = 2.01–2.56); those in the affective (OR = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.42–1.67) and introverted schizotypy profiles (OR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.29–1.51) were also more likely to have been exposed to any parental mental disorder, relative to children showing no risk.ConclusionChildhood schizotypy risk profiles appear not to be related specifically to familial liability for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; this is consistent with a model where liability for psychopathology is largely general rather than specific to particular diagnostic categories.

Out-of-home care characteristics associated with childhood educational underachievement, mental disorder, and police contacts in an Australian population sample

BackgroundChildren in out-of-home care (OOHC) are generally at increased risk of health and social adversities compared to their peers. However, the experiences of children in OOHC are not uniform and their associated health and social indices may vary in relation to characteristics of OOHC placements and child protection contact. ObjectiveTo examine associations between a range of characteristics of OOHC placements and child protection contact (e.g., number, type, and age of placement) with educational underachievement, mental disorder, and police contact (as a victim, witness, or person of interest) in childhood. Participants and settingParticipants were Australian children drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study cohort who had been placed in OOHC at least once between the ages of 0–13 years (n = 2082). MethodsLogistic regression was used to examine prospective associations of OOHC placement and child protection contact characteristics (type of carer, placement instability, duration and frequency of maltreatment, and amount of time in care) with educational underachievement, mental disorder diagnosis and any type of police contact. ResultsPlacements with foster carers, greater placement instability, longer and more frequent exposure to maltreatment, and longer time spent in care were each associated with greater likelihood of consequences in all domains of functioning. ConclusionsChildren with certain placement characteristics are at higher risk of adverse consequences and should be prioritised for support services. The magnitude of relationships was not uniform across different health and social indices, highlighting the need for holistic, multiagency approaches to support children placed in care.

Measurement Invariance Across Sex and Language Background of a Self-Report Social-Emotional Learning Questionnaire for Middle Childhood

This study investigates the measurement invariance of a brief self-report measure of childhood social-emotional competencies, the Middle Childhood Survey: Social-Emotional Learning (MCS-SEL), across demographic subgroups. Invariance was tested simultaneously among subgroups of children aged 11–12 years that were differentiated by sex (male, female) and main language spoken at home (English, not English). Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis evaluated structural and item-level invariance using two random, independent samples of 2,000 students (500 per demographic strata) selected by disproportionate sampling from the New South Wales Child Development Study (NSW-CDS) population cohort. The measure achieved full configural, metric, scalar, and residual invariance across all demographic subgroups, validating its utility for assessing middle childhood social-emotional competencies at a population-level.

Relationships between parental mental illness and/or offending and offspring contact with the police in childhood: Findings from a longitudinal record-linkage study.

Parental offending and mental illness are associated with an increased risk of criminal behaviour in offspring during adolescence and adulthood, but the impact of such problems on younger children, including children's experiences of victimisation, is less well known. To investigate the associations between parental offending and mental illness recorded prior to their offspring's age of 5years and their offspring's contact with police as a 'person of interest', 'victim' or 'witness' between ages 5 and 13years. Our sample consisted of 72,771 children and their parents drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study, an Australian longitudinal population-based record linkage study. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between parental factors and offspring's police contact. Separate models examined the relationships between maternal or paternal offending and mental illness, as well as the combination among either or both parents, as the independent variables, and their child's police contact as the dependent variable. Parental offending and mental illness were each individually associated with indices of police contact among offspring. Stronger associations were observed when both offending and mental illness were present together (in either parent, or when one parent had both exposures). Stronger associations were evident for mothers with both factors across all offspring police contact types, relative to fathers with both factors, in fully adjusted models; that is, children of mothers with both factors were over four times as likely to have contact with police as a 'person of interest' (OR=4.29; 95% CI=3.75-4.92) and over three times as likely to have contact as a victim (OR=3.35; 95% CI=3.01-3.74) or witness (OR=3.58; 95% CI=3.03-4.24), than children whose mothers had no history of offending or mental illness. Children with a parental history of offending and mental illness in early life are at an increased likelihood of early police contact as young as 5-13years of age; it is vital that this is taken as a signal to help them and their affected families according to need.

Cumulative Environmental Risk in Early Life: Associations With Schizotypy in Childhood.

Psychotic disorders are associated with a growing number of recognized environmental exposures. Cumulative exposure to multiple environmental risk factors in childhood may contribute to the development of different patterns of schizotypy evident in early life. Hypotheses were that distinct profiles of schizotypy would have differential associations with a cumulative score of environmental risk factors. We prospectively examined the relationship between 19 environmental exposures (which had demonstrated replicated associations with psychosis) measured from the prenatal period through to age 11 years, and 3 profiles of schizotypy in children (mean age = 11.9 years, n = 20 599) that have been established in population data from the New South Wales-Child Development Study. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine associations between membership in each of 3 schizotypy profiles (true schizotypy, introverted schizotypy, and affective schizotypy) and exposure to a range of 19 environmental risk factors for psychosis (both individually and summed as a cumulative environmental risk score [ERS]), relative to children showing no risk. Almost all environmental factors were associated with at least 1 schizotypy profile. The cumulative ERS was most strongly associated with the true schizotypy profile (OR = 1.61, 95% CI = 1.52-1.70), followed by the affective (OR = 1.33, 95% CI = 1.28-1.38), and introverted (OR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.28-1.37) schizotypy profiles. Consistent with the cumulative risk hypothesis, results indicate that an increased number of risk exposures is associated with an increased likelihood of membership in the 3 schizotypy profiles identified in middle childhood, relative to children with no schizotypy profile.

Early childhood developmental vulnerability associated with parental mental disorder comorbidity.

Parental mental health has a profound influence on the mental health and well-being of their offspring. With comorbid mental disorders generally the rule rather than the exception, increased knowledge of the impact of parental mental disorder comorbidity on early child development may facilitate improved targeting and delivery of early intervention for vulnerable offspring. Participants were 66,154 children and their parents in the New South Wales Child Development Study - a prospective, longitudinal, record-linkage study of a population cohort of children born in NSW between 2002 and 2004. Early childhood developmental vulnerability was assessed at age ~5 years using the Australian Early Development Census, and information on parental mental disorders was obtained from administrative health records. Binomial and multinomial logistic regression were used to assess the relationship between parental mental disorders and early childhood developmental vulnerability on emotional and behavioural domains, as well as membership of latent developmental risk classes reflecting particular classes of vulnerability. Multiple diagnoses of mental disorders in mothers and fathers were associated with an increased likelihood of early childhood emotional and behavioural developmental vulnerability in offspring, relative to parents without mental disorder. The likelihood of offspring vulnerability increased with the number of parental comorbidities, particularly maternal comorbidities. Early childhood developmental vulnerability was strongly associated with parental mental ill-health, with the strength of associations increasing in line with a greater number of mental disorder diagnoses among mothers and fathers. New and expectant parents diagnosed with multiple mental disorders should be prioritised for intervention, including attention to the developmental well-being of their offspring.

Self-reported mental health of children known to child protection services: an Australian population-based record linkage study.

Maltreated children are vulnerable to adverse mental health outcomes. Information about how children's mental health needs vary according to different levels of child protection contact (potentiallyculminating in out-of-home care [OOHC]) is valuable for the effective provision of services. This study aimed to examine associations between different levels of contact with child protection services before the age of 10years and self-reported mental health difficulties at age 11years. Participants (n = 26,960) were drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study, a multiagency, multigenerational, longitudinal record linkage study that combines administrative records with cross-sectional survey data. We examined associations between four levels of child protection response (non-threshold reports, unsubstantiated reports, substantiated reports, OOHC; each relative to no report) and six domains of self-reported mental health difficulties (including internalising and externalising symptoms, and psychotic-like experiences). All levels of contact with child protection services were associated with increased odds of mental health difficulties in all domains. Children who had been placedin OOHC and children with substantiated reports had the highest odds of reporting clinical levels of mental health difficulties; 48.1% of children with an OOHC placementand 45.6% of those with substantiated child protection reports showed clinical levels of mental health difficulties in at least one domain. Children with child protection reports that were unsubstantiated, or determined not to meet the threshold for risk-of-significant harm, were also at increased risk of mental health difficulties in middle childhood. These findings underscore the importance of early detection and intervention for all children at risk of maltreatment.

Incidence of Early Police Contact Among Children With Emerging Mental Health Problems in Australia

In adulthood and adolescence, mental health vulnerability is known to be associated with risk of criminal justice system contact as both a perpetrator and survivor of crime, but whether this association is apparent early in child development is unknown. Prevention of poor outcomes, including repeated contact with the criminal justice system, relies on the identification of vulnerability early in life and at the start of such contact. To ascertain whether children with emotional or behavioral problems and general developmental vulnerabilities are at an increased risk of subsequent contact with police as a person of interest, a survivor of crime, or a witness. This cohort study used routinely collected data from the New South Wales Child Development Study in Australia. The cohort was composed of children who entered full-time schooling in New South Wales in 2009, had complete data for the emotional maturity domain of the Australian Early Development Census, and had no police contact before January 1, 2009. The children in the cohort were followed up until the age of 13 years. Data were analyzed from October 17, 2019, to May 13, 2020. Emotional or behavioral problems and developmental risk profiles derived from the teacher-rated Australian Early Development Census. Incidence rates of police contact (as a person of interest, survivor of crime, or witness) were derived from the New South Wales Police Force Computerised Operational Policing System. A total of 79 801 children (40 584 boys [50.9%]; 2009 mean [SD] age, 5.2 [0.37] years) were included. Children with teacher-identified emotional or behavioral problems at school entry had an incidence rate of police contact (for any reason) that was twice that of children without such problems (unadjusted hazard ratio [HR], 2.14; 95% CI, 1.94-2.37). Contact with police as a survivor of crime was most commonly recorded (7350 [9.2%]), but the strength of the association was greatest between emotional or behavioral problems and police contact as a person of interest (unadjusted HR, 4.75; 95% CI, 3.64-6.19). Incidence of police contact as a person of interest was high for children with a pervasive developmental risk profile (unadjusted HR, 13.80; 95% CI, 9.79-19.45). This study found an association of emerging emotional or behavioral problems and developmental vulnerabilities with increased risk of police contact for any reason among young children, suggesting that this well-known association in adults and adolescents can be identified at an earlier developmental stage. These findings support primary and secondary interventions to prevent police contact early in life and to target the earliest contacts with the criminal justice and educational systems.

Child protection services for children with special healthcare needs: A population record linkage study

AbstractChildren with disabilities are known to have high rates of contact with child protection services. However, little is known about child protection contacts for a broader group of children with special healthcare needs (SHCN; i.e., special needs or other impairments of concern that affect learning). This study examined the characteristics of contact with child protection services (prior to the age of 6 years) for children with SHCN identified at school entry using the 2009 Australian Early Development Census, using administrative data from more than 65,000 children in the New South Wales Child Development Study. Child protection contacts prior to age 6 years were more prevalent among children with SHCN compared with those without; in particular, children with SHCN had higher odds of a history of exposure to neglect and physical abuse, and higher odds of being placed in out‐of‐home care, compared with their typically developing peers. Understanding the characteristics of child protection contacts among children with SHCN, with consideration of factors that may influence their patterns of contact with these and other human services agencies, will inform the development of appropriate social policy initiatives to fulfil Australia’s obligations under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Transitions between socio-emotional and cognitive vulnerability profiles from early to middle childhood: a population study using multi-agency administrative records.

Adult psychosocial difficulties, including psychiatric disorders, are often preceded by childhood psychosocial vulnerabilities, presenting critical windows of opportunity for preventative intervention. The present study aimed to identify longitudinal patterns (representing transitions between profiles) of childhood socio-emotional and cognitive vulnerability in the general population from early to middle childhood, in relation to key risk factors (e.g. parental mental illness and offending). Data were drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study, which combines intergenerational multi-agency administrative records with cross-sectional assessments using data linkage methods. We analysed data from childhood assessments of socio-emotional and cognitive functioning at two time points (ages 5-6 and 10-11years) that were linked with administrative data from government departments of health, child protection, and education for 19,087 children and their parents. Latent profile analyses were used to identify socio-emotional and cognitive profiles at each time point, and latent transition analyses were used to determine the probability and potential moderators of transition between profiles at each age. Three developmental profiles were identified in early childhood, reflecting typically developing, emotionally vulnerable, and cognitively vulnerable children, respectively; two profiles were identified in middle childhood, reflecting typically developing and vulnerable children. Child's sex, child protection services contact, parental mental illness, and parental offending influenced children's transitions between different vulnerability profiles, with the strongest effects for parental mental illness and child protection contact. Early detection of vulnerable children and factors promoting resilience are important steps in directing future health and social policy, and service planning for vulnerable children.

Reading and numeracy attainment of children reported to child protection services: A population record linkage study controlling for other adversities

BackgroundMaltreated children are at risk of poor educational outcomes, but also experience greater individual, family, and neighbourhood adversities that may obscure an understanding of relationships between child protection involvement and educational attainment. ObjectiveTo examine associations between child protection involvement and 3rd- and 5th-grade reading and numeracy attainment, while controlling multiple other adversities. Participants and SettingParticipants were 56,860 Australian children and their parents from the New South Wales Child Development Study with linked multi-agency records. MethodsMultinomial logistic regressions examined associations between level of child protection involvement (Out-Of-Home Care [OOHC] placement; substantiated Risk Of Significant Harm [ROSH]; unsubstantiated ROSH; non-ROSH; and no child protection report) and standardised tests of 3rd- and 5th-grade reading and numeracy. Fully adjusted models controlled demographic, pregnancy, birth, and parental factors, and early (kindergarten) developmental vulnerabilities on literacy and numeracy, and other developmental domains (social, emotional, physical, communication). ResultsAll children with child protection reports were more likely to attain below average, and less likely to attain above average, 3rd- and 5th-grade reading and numeracy, including children with reports below the ROSH threshold. Children with substantiated ROSH reports who were not removed into care demonstrated the worst educational attainment, with some evidence of protective effects for children in OOHC. ConclusionsA cross-agency response to supporting educational attainment for all children reported to child protection services is required, including targeted services for children in OOHC or with substantiated ROSH reports, and referral of vulnerable families (unsubstantiated and non-ROSH cases) to secondary service organisations (intermediate intervention).

Parental offending and children’s emergency department presentations in New South Wales, Australia

ObjectivesChildren whose parents have a history of criminal offending may be at risk of higher rates of emergency department (ED) presentation, along with other adverse health outcomes. We used data...

Inter-agency indicators of out-of-home-care placement by age 13-14 years: A population record linkage study.

Cross-agency administrative data can improve cost-effective triage systems for child protection and other human service delivery. To determine the minimum set of cross-agency indicators that could accurately classify placement in out-of-home-care (OOHC) before age 13-14 years. Participants were 72,079 Australian children (mean age = 13.16 years; SD = 0.37; 51.4% male) and their parents, for whom linked administrative records spanning the years 1994-2016 were available for analysis within the 'New South Wales Child Development Study'. First, a series of logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between cross-agency (health, justice, education) risk indicators and membership of the sub-cohort of 1239 children who had an OOHC placement prior to age 13-14 years, relative to (1) the sub-cohort of 55,473 children who had no previous contact with child protection services, and (2) the sub-cohort of 15,367 children who had been reported to child protection services but had no record of OOHC placement. We then explored the classification characteristics associated with a smaller combination of risk factors, and the utility of specific familial risk factors, for classifying membership of the OOHC subgroup. A combination of six risk indicators evident before OOHC placement can classify children placed in OOHC with approximately 95% accuracy, and the presence of at least four of these risk indicators provides excellent specificity (99.6%). A combination of risk factors observable in administrative datasets held by multiple government agencies may be used to target support services to prevent entry into OOHC for children from vulnerable families.

The influence of parental offending on the continuity and discontinuity of children's internalizing and externalizing difficulties from early to middle childhood.

Although parental criminal offending is a recognized risk factor for conduct problems among offspring, its impact on the continuity and discontinuity of children's behavioural and emotional difficulties during the early development is less well known. We used data from a large, population-based record-linkage project to examine the relationship between parental offending and the continuity and discontinuity of children's conduct, attentional, and emotional difficulties from early to middle childhood while also considering the role of timing of the parental offending exposure. Data for 19,208 children and their parents were drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study. Multinomial regression analyses tested associations between mother's and father's history and timing of any and violent offending, and patterns of continuity or discontinuity in offspring emotional, conduct, and attentional difficulties between ages 5 and 11years. Maternal and paternal offending each conferred a significantly increased risk of all the patterns of developmental difficulties, including those limited to age 5 only (remitting problems), to age 11 only (incident problems), and to difficulties present at both ages 5 and 11years (persisting problems). Greatest odds were observed for persisting conduct problems. Paternal offending that continued through early and middle childhood had the greatest association with child difficulties, while the timing of maternal offending had a less prominent effect on child developmental difficulties. Parental offending is a strong risk factor for early and pervasive behavioural and emotional problems in offspring, and may be a key indicator of high risk for later antisocial behaviour.

Connection to the Natural Environment and Well-Being in Middle Childhood

Though the positive association between a connection to the natural environment and well-being is well established, few studies have examined this association in children, and none have explored whether this relationship remains when accounting for other factors that affect well-being, such as social supports, attention, and empathic skills. The current study aims to address this gap. Data are drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study (NSW-CDS) and comprise a representative sample of 26,848 children who completed a self-report survey of mental health and well-being when aged approximately 11 years. Multiple regression analysis indicated that, after adjusting for covariates (i.e., social supports, empathy, attention, socioeconomic status, and sex), connection to nature was positively, albeit weakly, associated with two indicators of well-being: self-satisfaction and prosocial behavior. Social supports had the strongest relationship with self-satisfaction, while empathy had the strongest relationship with prosocial behavior. Based on our findings, and that of previous research, we suggest that developing a connection to nature can slightly improve well-being and may complement or augment other well-being and education-based programs. Future research should examine whether the relationship between connection to nature and well-being is influenced by proximity to green spaces, experiences of nature, and age.