South Of Nigeria Research Articles

Climate Refuges in Nigeria for Oil Palm in Response to Future Climate and Fusarium Wilt Stresses.

The detrimental stresses of future climate change are well known and decisions are required to reduce their effects. Climate and disease stresses cause severe damage to plants and it is essential to understand how they will respond. Oil palm (OP) is an Fusarium important crop for many countries. The palm originated in Africa, where palm oil is produced in the largest amount within the continent by Nigeria. OP becomes stressed by climate change and wilt, a devastating disease of OP in Africa. Previous methods to determine the suitability of future climate on OP in continents and whole countries were applied to Nigeria, which is the first time an individual country has been assessed in this manner. Climate maps of Nigeria were divided equally into 16 regions from north to south and east to west to determine the future suitable climate for growing OP. CLIMEX and narrative modelling were used to determine suitability for growing OP and Fusarium wilt incidence for current time and 2050. Maps from published papers were employed directly thereby facilitating the procedure. A distinct latitudinal increasing trend from north to south in suitable climate was observed, which was unexpected. A decreasing longitudinal trend from west to east was also observed. These differences in suitable climates may allow refuges for OP in the future. The growth of OP in the south of Nigeria may be largely unaffected by climate change by 2050, unlike the north. The procedures allow policy decisions at state and national levels to be made from empirical data, which do not otherwise exist. States with low amounts of OP and where the climate deteriorates greatly, could usefully be abandoned. Other low palm oil producers, where the climate does not deteriorate greatly, could be encouraged to develop OP. Little requires to be done in the high producing states where the climate does not deteriorate. In all cases, the environmental impacts require thorough assessment. Climate change requires reduction as indicated in recent Conference of the Parties meetings.

Statistical Analysis and Distribution of Global Solar Radiation and Temperature Over Southern Nigeria

The intensity of solar energy that is received by a particular location is affected by most meteorological conditions including, the solar irradiance received by the location, precipitation, extreme heat as a result of the surface or ambient temperature, etc. We obtain the monthly global solar irradiation and ambient temperature for the three (3) eco-climatic zones in the south of Nigeria (17 locations) for 12 years (2005 - 2016) from the Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PVGIS) Satellite. The goal of this study is to understand how regional meteorological conditions affect radiation and temperature reception. Monthly and annual trends were plotted and compared for both variables in each region to show the similarity or dichotomy in their trends. The Mann-Kendall (M-K) trend test has been adopted to reveal that the changes in the variations on an annual basis, and results showed that the trend were not significant for both variables. Box plots have been used to give a better description of the data, and compared to show similarities and differences. Finally, we adopted the Gaussian (normal) distribution to show, understand and compare the data distribution. Linear regression plots for each zone shows that the relationship between the solar irradiation and temperature is high. Results show that the climate and vegetation of a region contributes majorly to the variation of radiation and temperature. Inhomogeneityof data or results for locations in the same zones may be attributed to local meteorological conditions. The results obtained here will prove vital in decision making relating to the adoption of solar energy technologies in the region. Results show that the climate and vegetation of a region contributes majorly to the variation of radiation and temperature. Inhomogeneity of data or results for locations in the same zones may be attributed to local meteorological conditions.

Spatial Co-Morbidity of Childhood Acute Respiratory Infection, Diarrhoea and Stunting in Nigeria.

In low- and middle-income countries, children aged below 5 years frequently suffer from disease co-occurrence. This study assessed whether the co-occurrence of acute respiratory infection (ARI), diarrhoea and stunting observed at the child level could also be reflected ecologically. We considered disease data on 69,579 children (0–59 months) from the 2008, 2013, and 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Surveys using a hierarchical Bayesian spatial shared component model to separate the state-specific risk of each disease into an underlying disease-overall spatial pattern, common to the three diseases and a disease-specific spatial pattern. We found that ARI and stunting were more concentrated in the north-eastern and southern parts of the country, while diarrhoea was much higher in the northern parts. The disease-general spatial component was greater in the north-eastern and southern parts of the country. Identifying and reducing common risk factors to the three conditions could result in improved child health, particularly in the northeast and south of Nigeria.

Hegemonic Rivalry in a Peripheral Region: An Assessment of Nigeria–South Africa’s Role in African Politics

Nigeria’s claim as the giant of Africa is evident in her foreign policy articulation of African Centre Piece. From 1960, Nigeria has championed the project of Africa through different diplomatic engagements across the continent of Africa most especially under President Olusegun Obasanjo’s civilian administration. Nigeria’s unwavering support against the apartheid regime in South Africa led to the termination of apartheid government in 1994. However, the post- apartheid politics in Africa as well as the post-Cold War politics changed the dynamics of African politics. Nigeria’s claim as the giant of Africa became more contested and hypothetical with the emergence of notable countries such as Ethiopia and South Africa posing serious challenges to Nigeria’s hegemony in the continent. The most viable and notable threats came from South Africa following the end of apartheid regime in South Africa and coupled with its good governance rating, which had heightened the status of the country as a notable continental leader. This article attempts to explain the leadership roles of Nigeria and South Africa in a peripheral region of Africa with the view of analysing who has the sway to lead the affairs of Africa to the path of prosperity. Through the secondary method of data collection and qualitative method of data analysis (discourse analysis), the study concludes that Nigeria and South Africa roles in Africa were motivated by realist considerations. The study, however, recommends concerted efforts between Nigeria and South Africa in addressing socio-economic challenges in the African continent.

Boko Haram Terrorism and a Threat to Right to Education

The government shall direct its policy towards giving to the citizens equal and adequate educational opportunities at all levels. Although, not classified as a fundamental right, this constitutional prescription remains at the forefront of the basic objectives of the Nigerian government; yet, despite this laudable objective, the Northern region of Nigeria has a consistent record of low enrolment rate of indigenous pupils in schools, thereby creating a noticeable disparity between the North and South of Nigeria in terms of education. It is against this background that this paper discusses the evolution, incidences and enabling circumstances of Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria and its effects on education, particularly in the areas affected. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the long term consequences of the Boko Haram terrorism on the right to education, as guaranteed by the 1999 constitution, in the affected areas of Nigeria. The paper traces the origin and factors that aided the Boko Haram terrorism. It also considers the extent of the effectiveness of the response of the Nigerian government in tackling the problem. The findings prove that, although the response of the government has been active, yet it has not been effective in curtailing the terrorist activities. This has negatively impacted on education in the affected areas of the Northern Nigeria. The paper suggested measures to address the problem.

Political economy of Nigeria–South Africa foreign direct investment relations and challenges of the manufacturing sector in Nigeria, 1999–2017

ABSTRACT Although there are existing scholarly works covering a wide gamut of Nigeria–South Africa bilateral relations post apartheid, not much has been done on their investment relations, particularly between the periods 1999–2017. As such, this study seeks to bridge this gap by examining the political economy of Nigeria–South Africa foreign direct investment relations and a challenges of the manufacturing sector in Nigeria. The study employed the qualitative method of data collection and the qualitative descriptive method of data analysis. Guided by the Marxist Theory of Structuralism, the study found out that institutional weakness accounted for the low level of South African investment in the manufacturing sector in Nigeria. As such, the study recommended that the state should adopt a developmental role by investing in targeted sectors of the economy like the manufacturing sector in other to catalyse industrialisation, and to place Nigeria on the path to sustainable development.

Assessment of human health risk for surface sediments of Ikpoba River contaminated by heavy metals

Five heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Ni, Cd, Fe) were accessed in surface sediments from Ikpoba River in Benin City, South of Nigeria; an area impacted by soil erosion and the Benin Water Storm project. The heavy metals were analysed using atomic absorption spectrometer. The mean concentrations of heavy metals were 0.543 mg/kg (Pb), 1.289 mg/kg (Ni), 0.001 mg/kg (Cd), 18.90143 mg/kg (Cu) and 1022 mg/kg (Fe) respectively. Human health risk assessment was used to assess the pollution degree of the river sediments. The results indicated that the pollution degree of heavy metals increased in the order Fe>Cu>Ni>Pb>Cd. Human health risk assessment indicated that noncarcinogenic risks all fell below threshold level for both children and adults. The total carcinogenic risk due to Pb and Cd were within the acceptable range for both adults and children. The findings provide a scientific basis for the control of potentially toxic heavy metals concentrations and environmental protection of Ikpoba River.Keywords: Metals; Contamination Risk; River; Sediment

Levels and determinants of maternal mortality in northern and southern Nigeria

BackgroundMaternal mortality is still a major risk for women of childbearing age in Nigeria. In 2008, Nigeria bore 14% of the global burden of maternal mortality. The national maternal mortality ratio has remained elevated despite efforts to reduce maternal deaths. Though health disparities exist between the North and South of Nigeria, there is a dearth of evidence on the estimates and determinants of maternal mortality for these regions.MethodsThis study aimed to assess differences in the levels and determinants of maternal mortality in women of childbearing age (15–49 years) in the North and South of Nigeria. The Nigeria Demographic and Health Surveys (2008 and 2013) were used. The association between maternal mortality (outcome) and relevant sociocultural, economic and health factors was tested using multivariable logistic regression in a sample of 51,492 living or deceased women who had given birth.ResultsThere were variations in the levels of maternal mortality between the two regions. Maternal mortality was more pronounced in the North and increased in 2013 compared to 2008. For the South, the levels slightly decreased. Media exposure and education were associated with maternal mortality in the North while contraceptive method, residence type and wealth index were associated with maternal death in the South. In both regions, age and community wealth were significantly associated with maternal mortality.ConclusionsDifferences in the levels and determinants of maternal mortality between the North and South of Nigeria stress the need for efforts to cut maternal deaths through new strategies that are relevant for each region. These should improve education of girls in the North and access to health information and services in the South. Overall, new policies to improve women’s socioeconomic status should be adopted.

Optimization of frequency and targeting of measles supplemental immunization activities in Nigeria: A cost-effectiveness analysis

BackgroundMeasles causes significant childhood morbidity in Nigeria. Routine immunization (RI) coverage is around 40% country-wide, with very high levels of spatial heterogeneity (3–86%), with supplemental immunization activities (SIAs) at 2-year or 3-year intervals. We investigated cost savings and burden reduction that could be achieved by adjusting the inter-campaign interval by region. MethodsWe modeled 81 scenarios; permuting SIA calendars of every one, two, or three years in each of four regions of Nigeria (North-west, North-central, North-east, and South). We used an agent-based disease transmission model to estimate the number of measles cases and ingredients-based cost models to estimate RI and SIA costs for each scenario over a 10 year period. ResultsDecreasing SIAs to every three years in the North-central and South (regions of above national-average RI coverage) while increasing to every year in either the North-east or North-west (regions of below national-average RI coverage) would avert measles cases (0.4 or 1.4 million, respectively), and save vaccination costs (save $19.4 or $5.4 million, respectively), compared to a base-case of national SIAs every two years. Decreasing SIA frequency to every three years in the South while increasing to every year in the just the North-west, or in all Northern regions would prevent more cases (2.1 or 5.0 million, respectively), but would increase vaccination costs (add $3.5 million or $34.6 million, respectively), for $1.65 or $6.99 per case averted, respectively. ConclusionsOur modeling shows how increasing SIA frequency in Northern regions, where RI is low and birth rates are high, while decreasing frequency in the South of Nigeria would reduce the number of measles cases with relatively little or no increase in vaccination costs. A national vaccination strategy that incorporates regional SIA targeting in contexts with a high level of sub-national variation would lead to improved health outcomes and/or lower costs.

MON-337 A Case Study: Steroid and Gonadotropin Hormones Secretion Pattern in Ovarian Cancer: 10-Year Follow-Up

Background: The ovaries in females maintain the health of the reproductive system. The ovaries secrete two main hormones, estrogen and progesterone. In ovarian cancer (Granulosa cell tumor) the secretion pattern of these hormones changes and few data are available that clearly describes the secretion of these hormones. Clinical case: In may 2007, in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, South of Nigeria, a 46years old woman was diagnosed with tumor of the ovaries (Granulosa cell tumor)), stage 11 after presenting features of ovarian cancer, that includes infertility and 9 months secondary amenorrhea The study investigated the sex hormones and gonadotropin hormones secretion pattern before the surgery and post surgery chemotherapeutic treatment for about 10years. Because of her interest in still getting pregnant, she resisted the surgery for about six months. Within this period the samples were collected thrice for the sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone), Inhibin B and gonadotropic hormones (FSH and LH). After Salpingo-oophorectomy was performed, the samples for the hormones were thereafter collected twice every year till August 2017 when she died at the age of 57years. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) method was used for the determination of the hormones. The result showed a Mean S.D serum estradiol level of 386.55 35.62 pg/ml, progesterone level of 3.26 0.44ng/ml, testosterone level of 0.62 0.24 ng/ml, Inhibin B = 145.90 20.05 pg/ml. The serum FSH was 1.95 0.84miu/ml, LH = 4.07 1.55 miu/l at preoperatomy. 3 months after the surgery, the sex hormones reduced significantly (P<0.05) by about 92.1%, the serum inhibin B reduced to 34.7pg/ml and the FSH increased by about 23.50% with no statistical difference in the values for LH, with a value of 2.97 miu/ml. The sex hormones secretion increased by 9.34% by the 8th to the 10th year before her death without any significant change in the gonadotropic hormones. The origin of the slight increase in the sex hormones secretion is unclear, but should be attributed to its secretion from other sources (Fat cells and adrenal) apart from the ovary. Conclusion: The hormone studies in a case of granulosa cell tumor of the ovary was established pre-and postoperatively. The sex hormones were elevated and gonadotropic hormones reduced significantly before surgery. Postoperative sex hormones secretion showed undetected levels, the slight increase in the sex hormone levels after about 6 years postoperative were not statistically significant (P>0.05).

Cardiac Markers: An Index in the Assessment of Cardiovascular Disease in Diabetic Patients in Bayelsa State, Niger Delta Region, South of Nigeria

Background and Objective: Patients with type 2 Diabetes mellitus (DM) are known to be at risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The prevalence and incidence of DM patients with heart diseases is unknown in Yenagoa and its environ of Bayelsa State, Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The study, with the tool of cardiac markers, investigated the incidence of CVD in chronic and non-chronic DM patients and compared the prevalence in both male and female subjects with respect to the duration of illness. The study sought to evaluate the diagnostic performance of cardiac markers to evaluate the diabetic subjects and the goals of screening are to improve life expectancy and quality of life by preventing Myocardial infarction (MI) and heart failure through the early detection of significant CVD. Study Design and Methods: A total of 356 type 2 DM patients were recruited for the study. They are diabetic patients that presented with symptoms of CVD. They were grouped into 135 DM patients that have suffered the Diabetes for less than 10 years, 119 for 10 - 20 years and 102 for 21 and above years. The plasma levels of the Cardiac Markers, Troponin I (CTnI), Troponin T (cTnT), Creatine Kinase (CK-MB), Myoglobin (MYO) and Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were determined in the subjects. The method of fluorescence immunoassay (FIA) was used in the measurement of CTn1, CTnT and MYO. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) was used to determine the CK-MB and LDH. Results: Analysis of the results has shown that 14.33% of the studied subjects were diagnosed of various CVD and were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Of these, 8.15% were females and 6.18% were males. 54.90% of DM subjects diagnosed of CVD were from group 21 and above years while 29.41% were from group 10 to 20 years and 15.69% from those that had suffered it for <10 years. 26.12% of the total DM patients studied had either one or more of the cardiac markers elevated, showing the potentials of developing heart diseases. The correlation between the different age groups and the pair wise correlations between measured parameters in the DM patients with CVD showed a positive correlation. Conclusion: The tools of cardiac markers can be used in the diagnosis/assessment of CVD in type 2 DM patients. The risk of developing CVD is more in females than the male subjects that are suffering from type 2 DM and those with long duration of the illness in Yenegoa, Bayelsa State, Niger Delta Region, South of Nigeria.

CONSISTENCY OF THE EFFECTS OF FEMALE EDUCATION ON FERTILITY ACROSS THE NORTH-SOUTH DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDE IN NIGERIA, 2003-2013.

Most studies examining the association between female education and fertility have reported an inverse association. However, little is known about the consistency of the relationship, or what level of education triggers an inverse association. This study examined the consistency of the association between female education and fertility across the north-south demographic divide in Nigeria. Data on women aged 40-49 were taken from the 2003, 2008 and 2013 Nigerian DHS data sets. The results showed that female education remained significantly and consistently inversely related to fertility in both the north and south of Nigeria. Women with secondary or higher level of education reported a lower number of children ever born (CEB) than those with primary or no education in both the north and south (p&lt;0.05). The findings suggest that female education has a more effective negative effect on fertility in the south, where the level of female schooling is higher, than in the north, with its limited level of female education. Primary-level female education appeared to be ineffective in reducing fertility in the study sample. Women with primary schooling reported a slightly higher CEB than those who did not have any formal education. Also, age at marriage and child mortality were found to be consistent and significant predictors of fertility in both the north and south (p&lt;0.001). Women who married at relatively higher ages and those who had never lost a child reported a smaller CEB consistently in both the north and south (p&lt;0.001). Therefore, to attain sustainable fertility decline throughout Nigeria, it is imperative that policies aimed at increasing the prevalence and quality of female education are pursued, and there must be a focus on social, physical, environmental and cultural factors influencing age at marriage and child mortality.

Factors explaining the North–South differentials in contraceptive use in Nigeria: A nonlinear decomposition analysis

Background: Northern Nigeria has some of the worst reproductive health indicators worldwide. Conspicuous North–South variations exist in contraceptive use; not much is known about the drivers of contraceptive use disparities in the North compared to the South. Objective: In this study, we examine the relative weights of the factors that contribute to this North–South gap in contraceptive prevalence. Methods: Using the women’s 2013 Demographic Health Survey dataset, we applied a nonlinear decomposition technique to determine the contribution of sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics, conjugal relationship dynamics, intimate partner violence, ideational variables, and Islamic culture to the North–South disparities in contraceptive use. Results: There was a gap of 12.4 percentage points in contraceptive prevalence between the north and south of Nigeria (5.2% vs 17.6%). The largest contributors to the gap were ideational characteristics (explaining 42.0% of the gap) and socio-economic profiles (explaining 42.6%). Patterns of conjugal relationship dynamics (11.1%), socio-demographic characteristics (‒11.0%), Islamic religious culture (7.6%), and exposure to family planning messaging (6.1%) were also significant contributors. Conclusions: Effective interventions to increase contraceptive use in northern Nigeria should aim at addressing socioeconomic disadvantage in the North, impacting ideational characteristics and specifically targeting poor women and those with low levels of education. Working with Islamic religious leaders is also critical to bridging the gap. Contribution: This paper broadens the knowledge on the determinants of contraceptive use in Nigeria by identifying contextual factors that operate differently in the North compared to the South.

Sex Hormones Secretion Pattern in Pregnant Sickle Cell Subjects in Niger Delta Region, South of Nigeria

Sickle cell anemia (SCA) patients are reported with infertility and low rate of pregnancies. This is associated with wide range of reproductive issues that are still relevant because of the complications and problems of the disease that still persist till date. This study was carried out to establish the secretion pattern of the sex hormones (Progesterone and Estradiol) in the three trimesters of pregnant sickle cell disease subjects in the Niger Delta Region, south of Nigeria. The study included twenty (20) pregnant sickle cell anemia subjects with average age of 27.4 years and twenty (20) apparently healthy (Hemoglobin AA) subjects with average age of 28.2 years. Their samples collection started when they registered for antenatal care at the clinics within the first trimester of pregnancy. The Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method was used in the measurement of the hormones in the plasma of the subjects. The result showed a statistical significant reduction (P < 0.05) in the values of the hormones in the three trimesters obtained for the sickle cell disease (SCD) subjects when compared with apparently healthy subjects with the same age range. Statistical analysis showed a strong positive correlation ((r = 0.8151 for Estradiol and r = 0.8793) for Progesterone) between the secretion of the sex hormones, in the sickle cell subjects and the control. The result is attributed to the sickle cell gene abnormality and the treatment of SCA that affects the endocrine system by inhibiting the production of gonadotropins from the pituitary gland. The SCD itself does not directly damage the reproductive system; however it can affect other systems which will eventually cause harm to the reproductive system. The study concluded that the sickle cell anemia patients require the administration of the hormone drugs during pregnancy to prevent to a certain extent, complications arising from hormonal imbalance.

Prevalence of use of Pain relievers in a Hospital in Bayelsa State, South- South of Nigeria

Prevalence of use of Pain relievers in a Hospital in Bayelsa State, South- South of Nigeria

Assessment of Patient Satisfaction with Pharmaceutical Services in Community Pharmacies in Bayelsa State South- South of Nigeria

Today, contemporary pharmacy practice exhibits an evolving paradigm shift from traditional medication dispensing to more active and expanded clinical roles, such as clerking of patient on medication, counseling, screening prescriptions, dispensing and any other management work related to the stocking of medications activities. This study was set out to evaluate patient satisfaction with pharmaceutical services. About 300 respondents agreed to participate after they were made to understand the full details of the study. The questionnaire captured demographic data, drug information provided and how satisfied patients were with the pharmaceutical services provided. 60% of respondents reported that information on adverse effects of drugs/side effects was provided. 60% reported that information on food not to be taken with drugs was provided, 54% reported that information on drug-drug interactions was provided, 59% reported that information on what to do when adverse effects of drugs/side effects occur was provided, 59.5% reported that information on how to store their medications was provided, 74.5% reported that information on importance/need for adherence to medication was provided, 70.5% reported that instructions on the need for follow-up was provided.

Before Sustainable Development Goals (SDG): why Nigeria failed to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

World leaders adopted the UN Millennium Declaration in 2000, which committed the nations of the world to a new global partnership, aimed at reducing extreme poverty and other time-bound targets, with a stated deadline of 2015. Fifteen years later, although significant progress has been made worldwide, Nigeria is lagging behind for a variety of reasons, including bureaucracy, poor resource management in the healthcare system, sequential healthcare worker industrial action, Boko Haram insurgency in the north of Nigeria and kidnappings in the south of Nigeria. The country needs to tackle these problems to be able to significantly advance with the new sustainable development goals (SDGs) by the 2030 target date.

Prevention of Otologic Disorders in Nigeria : The Case of Primary School Children in Rivers State , South South of Nigeria

Prevention of Otologic Disorders in Nigeria : The Case of Primary School Children in Rivers State , South South of Nigeria

A description of HIV prevalence trends in Nigeria from 2001 to 2010: what is the progress, where is the problem?

IntroductionNigeria's population of 160 million and estimated HIV prevalence of 3.34% (2011) makes Nigeria the second highest HIV burden worldwide, with 3.2 million people living with HIV (PLHIV). In 2010, US government spent about US$456.5 million on the Nigerian epidemic. Antenatal clinic (ANC) HIV sero-prevalence sentinel survey has been conducted biennially in Nigeria since 1991 to track the epidemic. This study looked at the trends of HIV in Nigeria over the last decade to identify progress and needs.MethodsWe conducted description of HIV sero-prevalence sentinel cross-sectional surveys conducted among pregnant women attending ANC from 2001 to 2010, which uses consecutive sampling and unlinked-anonymous HIV testing (UAT) in160 sentinel facilities. 36,000 blood samples were collected and tested. We used Epi-Info to determine national and state HIV prevalence and trends. The Estimation and Projection Package with Spectrum were used to estimate/project the burden of infection.ResultsNational ANC HIV prevalence rose from 1.8% (1991) to 5.8% (2001) and dropped to 4.1% (2010). Since 2001, states in the center, and south of Nigeria had higher prevalence than the rest, with Benue and Cross Rivers notable. Benue was highest in 2001 (14%), 2005 (10%), and 2010 (12.7%). Overall, eight states (21.6%) showed increased HIV prevalence while six states (16.2%) had an absolute reduction of at least 2% from 2001 to 2010. In 2010, Nigeria was estimated to have 3.19 million PLHIV, with the general population prevalence projected to drop from 3.34% in 2011 to 3.27% in 2012.ConclusionExamining a decade of HIV ANC surveillance in Nigeria revealed important differences in the epidemic in states that need to be examined further to reveal key drivers that can be used to target future interventions.

China’s New Security Strategy for Africa

In December 2008, the Chinese Navy deployed three warships into the Gulf of Aden. This operation is not just a key moment in the development of China's blue-water navy, but also demonstrates China's growing willingness to secure its economic interests in Africa. The question is how successful this policy will be. The deeper China ventures into the resource-abundant African continent, the more it stumbles upon various security challenges. It is obvious that the People's Republic of China (PRC) desires to be Africa's most prominent economic partner. It is also unmistakable that the PRC is swiftly gaining diplomatic leverage. What is less clear, however, is how it will respond to the perils that lie ahead. Throughout history, most external powers for whom Africa's mineral wealth became indispensable to their industrial growth backed up their economic forays with a projection of military might, to suppress local resistance in their dominions or defend their realms from imperialist competitors. The dispatching of forces to Africa derived from the desire to reduce vulnerability while not having to rely on others. (1) Now China has achieved a stage of economic development which requires endless supplies of African raw materials and has started to develop the capacity to exercise influence in most corners of the globe. The extrapolation of history predicts that distrust and uncertainty will inevitably lead the People's Liberation Army (PLA) to Africa in staggering numbers. In application of the self-help paradigm, China is expected to confront security challenges autonomously, while keeping other powers at bay. This article provides an overview of recent security challenges and the ways in which China has been adapting its security policy, then discusses what China's options are for the future and to what extent unilateral military action in Africa is feasible. Security Challenges There are several sources of uncertainty regarding China's aspirations in Africa. Chinese mining activities often fall prey to endemic instability and violence in economic partner states. Since 2004, several Chinese companies have been in the frontline of internal conflicts. In 2004, rebels abducted Chinese workers who were working in southern Sudan. (2) In April 2006, a separatist movement detonated a car bomb in the south of Nigeria, warned that investors from China would be treated as thieves, and threatened new attacks on oil workers, storage facilities, bridges, offices, and other oil industry targets. A spokesperson for the militant Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta condemned China for taking a $2.2 billion stake in oil fields in the delta. (3) In July of that year, violent protests erupted at the Chinese-owned Chambisi copper mine in Zambia, resulting in five deaths and severe material damage. In November, Sudanese rebels launched three attacks on Chinese oil facilities and briefly seized the Abu Jabra oil field close to Darfur. (4) In January 2007, five Chinese telecommunications workers were kidnapped by gunmen in the oil city of Port Harcourt in southern Nigeria. Two weeks afterward, another nine Chinese oil workers went missing after being attacked by an armed group in Bayelsa state, Nigeria. (5) A month later, four assailants raided a Chinese stone plant in Kenya and killed one Chinese employee. (6) In April 2007, nine Chinese and 65 Ethiopian oil engineers were killed during an assault on an oil exploration site operated by SINOPEC's Zhongyuan Petroleum Exploration Bureau in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia. The Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), an ethnic Somali group, kidnapped and later released seven Chinese men. The ONLF has repeatedly warned foreign oil companies to leave the region bordering Somalia. In 2008, the Chinese government organized the evacuation of 212 compatriots from Chad to Cameroon after clashes in N'Djamena, Chad's capital. In the seas around Africa another risk looms. …