Southeastern Iberia Research Articles

Genomic, morphological and physiological data support fast ecotypic differentiation and incipient speciation in an alpine diving beetle.

An intricate interplay between evolutionary and demographic processes has frequently resulted in complex patterns of genetic and phenotypic diversity in alpine lineages, posing serious challenges to species delimitation and biodiversity conservation planning. Here we integrate genomic data, geometric morphometric analyses and thermal tolerance experiments to explore the role of Pleistocene climatic changes and adaptation to alpine environments on patterns of genomic and phenotypic variation in diving beetles from the taxonomically complex Agabus bipustulatus species group. Genetic structure and phylogenomic analyses revealed the presence of three geographically cohesive lineages, two representing trans-Palearctic and Iberian populations of the elevation-generalist A. bipustulatus and another corresponding to the strictly-alpine A. nevadensis, a narrow-range endemic taxon from the Sierra Nevada mountain range in southeastern Iberia. The best-supported model of lineage divergence, along with the existence of pervasive genetic introgression and admixture in secondary contact zones, is consistent with a scenario of population isolation and connectivity linked to Quaternary climatic oscillations. Our results suggest that A. nevadensis is an alpine ecotype of A. bipustulatus, whose genotypic, morphological and physiological differentiation likely resulted from an interplay between population isolation and local altitudinal adaptation. Remarkably, within the Iberian Peninsula, such ecotypic differentiation is unique to Sierra Nevada populations and has not been replicated in other alpine populations of A. bipustulatus. Collectively, our study supports fast ecotypic differentiation and incipient speciation processes within the study complex and points to Pleistocene glaciations and local adaptation along elevational gradients as key drivers of biodiversity generation in alpine environments.

Exploring handmade pottery traditions and Early Iron Age Iberian networks through the site of La Fonteta (Alicante, Spain)

The Phoenician colony of La Fonteta in southeastern Iberia holds significant importance for understanding Phoenician settlement patterns in the region. While previous research has primarily focused on wheel-thrown ceramics indicative of the new technological advancements and trade networks implemented after the Phoenician arrival, handmade ceramics have been somewhat overlooked despite their prevalence in the Early Iron Age (EIA) contexts. Our study, based on the analysis of 36 individuals from recent excavations at La Fonteta, sheds light on the technological aspects (temper choice and estimated firing temperature) and mobility patterns associated with handmade ceramics in this context. Contrary to previous assumptions, our findings indicate that handmade ceramics played a crucial role in regional and broader exchange systems, possibly with limited ties to wheel-thrown ceramics. Moreover, regional mobility seems to have been prominent, likely stemming from local networks and technological frameworks established during the preceding Late Bronze Age (LBA) period.

Approach to the visual landscape of the Gor river megalithic necropolises (Granada, Spain)

This paper presents the results of several visibility analysis carried out upon the 151 preserved megaliths of the Gor valley (Granada, Andalusia, Spain) as well as upon the 5 known settlements in the area with Chalcolithic chronology. In order to analyse the relationship between megaliths, settlements and territory during the Late Prehistory in Southeastern Iberia, the analyses carried out have been intervisibility and individual, cumulative and total or inherent viewshed. The results underline the existence of a noticeable network of visual connection between the megaliths as a whole, as well as with the settlements, especially in the middle river course. This interrelationship is only broken by some more distant necropolises that were already noted as they differ from the rest in both topographical and formal aspects. The results of cumulative and total viewshed show the existence of a defined strategy to choose megaliths locations, in order to visually control areas of the terrain that are not naturally privileged as observation points. The conclusions clearly point to the existence of an increasing network aimed at achieving the demarcation and total control over the exploited territory, creating a new landscape mainly linked to funerary monuments, from which ancestors tie past to present for defining territorial appropriation.

New Early Rupelian Endemic Porcellaneous Larger Foraminifera from the Prebetic Range, Westernmost Tethys. Discussion on Praerhapydionina

Abstract Peneroplis peramplus n. sp. and Spirolinella emmae n. gen., n. sp. are described from the early Rupelian of the Ibi section in the Prebetic Range (southeastern Iberia). The former is a Peneroplis species of evolute annular growth with a large bilocular megalospheric embryo. Spirolinella n. gen. is similar to Spirolina, from which it differs by a complex aperture. Spirolinella is also similar to Praerhapydionina, but it completely lacks radial partitions. It also differs in the wall texture, homogeneous in Spirolinella and with a pseudokeriotheca-like texture in Praerhapydionina. This newly observed character in Praerhapydionina will help to identify the genus and verify its presumed cosmopolitan distribution. The two new species show the same stratigraphical range, corresponding to the Shallow Benthic Zone SBZ 21, early Rupelian, and are considered endemic to the carbonate platform that developed during the Paleogene in the southeastern margin of the Iberian plate, at the westernmost Tethys.

Funerary practices in megalithic tombs during the Argaric Bronze Age in South-Eastern Iberia: The cemetery of Los Eriales

The transition between the Copper Age and the Argaric Bronze Age in south-eastern Iberia has traditionally been understood in an evolutionary framework that would have involved the replacement of some cultural forms by others. The chronology of megalithic societies has changed this assumption, revealing that the continuity of ancestral funerary practices is also a key feature of the Bronze Age. In this context, the new radiocarbon series from Los Eriales discussed in this paper can be considered a key contribution. Three main aspects stand out according to their statistical analysis: i) Los Eriales should be considered the most recent Iberian megalithic cemetery, as ritual activity began in the last centuries of the third millennium cal BC; ii) funerary activity took place during short events of intensive ritual depositions spanning a few decades, mainly in the 21st and 18th centuries; and iii) Los Eriales cemetery was mainly used during the Argaric period, which means the coexistence of two very different funerary practices: collective megalithic rituals and individual intramural inhumations. The continuity of megalithic rituals can be explained in terms of resilience to the social fragmentation that characterised Argaric societies.

Evidences of the Blake and Iceland Basin magnetic excursions in southeastern Iberia and chronological implications for the Padul sedimentary record

Evidences of the Blake and Iceland Basin magnetic excursions in southeastern Iberia and chronological implications for the Padul sedimentary record

Late extension of a passive margin coeval with subduction of the adjacent slab: The Western Alps and Maghrebides files

The evolution of the Alpine Tethys margins during the beginning of the African-Eurasian convergence was little studied compared to their evolution during the post-Pangea rifting and oceanic expansion,i.e., from the Early Jurassic to the early Late Cretaceous. The present work firstly aims to make up for this shortcoming in the case of the distal European margin of the Alpine Tethys, namely the Briançonnais domain of the Western Alps. We show that this margin was affected by strong post-rifting extension mainly in Late Cretaceous-Paleocene times and propose to make it the type of the (rare) “Late Extension Passive Margins”. Remarkably, this extension shortly preceded Lutetian times, when Briançonnais margin encroached the SE-dipping subduction zone under the Adria microplate. Secondly, we assess the post-rifting evolution of the north-Tethyan paleomargin in the Maghrebides transects,i.e., south-west of the Briançonnais transect along the same European-Iberian paleomargin. For this purpose, we consider the Triassic-Eocene series of the “Dorsale Calcaire” in the Alkapeca Blocks located along southeastern Iberia until the Eocene then transported onto the North African margin. Examination of the literature shows that the Tethyan margin of the Alboran block was strongly affected by normal faulting as early as Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous times whereas post-rifting extension of the Kabylian blocks mainly occurred in the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene like in the Briançonnais. We propose that post-rifting extension of the Alboran block southern margin resulted from the sinistral movement of Africa relative to Iberia while the later extension of the Kabylian blocks can be related to the further convergence kinematics. Subduction of the Ligurian-Maghrebian slab under the North African margin would have occurred at that time in the southward continuation of the Alpine subduction. The overriding Adria and North African margins did not experience significant compression at that time. During the Eocene, a subduction polarity reversal occurred, which was associated with the relocation of the subduction zone along the Alkapeca block. This was the beginning of the Apenninic subduction, which triggered the back-arc opening of the Mediterranean basins.

Coastal Resource Integration and Reuse in Iron Age South-Eastern Iberia: The Lead Ingots Cast from Pinna nobilis Shells

The Iron Age shipwrecks of Agde K (Brescou Island, France) and Cabrera B (Balearic Islands), discovered in the 1960s, together yielded seven lead ingots cast in the large shells of Pinna nobilis molluscs. Lead isotope analysis later traced the ingots to lead sources in south-eastern Iberia. These ingots are reassessed here as evidence for the integration of coastal production strategies in Iron Age south-eastern Iberia, revealing material connections between metallurgy and coastal industries linked to the exploitation of Pinna nobilis, such as sea silk manufacture. This compelling example of reuse of materials from one industry in another attests to a circular economic activity that is likely to have had practical and environmental motivations. The author aims to promote the recognition of Pinna nobilis shell casting and similar reuse phenomena elsewhere in the Mediterranean basin.

Integrative Taxonomy Reveals a New Melitaea (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Species Widely Distributed in the Iberian Peninsula

Abstract The Melitaea phoebe group is constituted by six species distributed throughout the Palearctic. One of the most widespread species is Melitaea ornata Christoph, 1893, present from France (Provence) to Central Asia. Recently, populations of M. ornata were discovered in a mountainous region of south-eastern Iberia, although doubts about their taxonomy existed. To clarify the taxonomic status of these populations and to revise the distribution of this taxon in Iberia, we have sequenced mitochondrial (COI barcode region) and nuclear (wg, RPS5, MDH, and EF-1α) markers, and analyzed the male genitalia for 72 Iberian individuals and for all the species of the M. phoebe group. This information was complemented with phenological and ecological data. Our results unveiled that the Iberian M. ornata-like taxon is in fact distributed through most of the Iberian Peninsula, except for the south-west and north-east. In contrast to the univoltine M. ornata, the Iberian taxon can be bivoltine in the wild. The Iberian taxon was retrieved to be related to M. ornata, but the differences in the genetic markers and genitalia were comparable to those found between species in the group. Based on the evidence here presented and according to species delimitation results, we propose to consider the Iberian taxon as a novel species, tentatively named Melitaea pseudornata Muñoz Sariot & Sánchez Mesa, 2019, stat. nov.

Holocene morpho-stratigraphic evolution of a compound submarine deltaic system in front of the shelf-incising Almanzora and Garrucha Canyons (Palomares margin, southeastern Iberia)

The Holocene morpho-stratigraphic evolution of a compound submarine deltaic system linked with the Antas and Almanzora Rivers on the narrow (< 5 km) shelf along the Palomares margin (southeastern Iberia) has been reconstructed from the integrated analysis of geomorphology, seismo-stratigraphy and sedimentology. The shelf morphology is characterized by a 3–4 km wide deltaic body off the Almanzora River, where seafloor undulations and gullies are present. Larger and more incised gullies, crescent-shaped bedforms and pockmarks are recognizable at or close to the head of shelf-indenting canyons associated with the Almanzora-Garrucha canyon system.The seismo-stratigraphy displays a strong and irregular basal reflector overlain by a sedimentary wedge, showing variable thicknesses (1–25 m) and seismic characteristics along and across the shelf. The main depocenter of this wedge is not located off the Almanzora River mouth (i.e., the main sedimentary input in the study area) but along the southern shelf encompassing the Almanzora and Antas Rivers. Grain-size and sand compositional analyses show that silty sand with high terrigenous content (mostly quartz and mica) is mainly found on the submarine deltaic body. In contrast, sandy silt with variable ratios between terrigenous and biogenic contents is retrieved from the canyon head and associated gullies as well as from the surrounding mid-outer shelf.The evolution of the Antas-Almanzora compound delta has been divided into three evolutionary stages, mainly driven by the interplay between paleo-topography and riverine and marine processes and modulated by sea level changes during the Holocene. The origin of the present-day morphological features is also discussed, again highlighting a complex interaction between sedimentary gravity flows (mainly flash flood-generated hyperpycnal flows), storm-waves and shelf currents, fluid seepage and retrogressive slope failures.

Genomic inferences in a thermophilous grasshopper provide insights into the biogeographic connections between northern African and southern European arid‐dwelling faunas

AbstractAimAlthough thermophilous and arid‐dwelling relict biotas constitute a singular component of European biodiversity of high conservation value, we still largely ignore their biogeographic history. In this study, we investigate the geographical diversification of the Maghrebian‐Levantine crested grasshopper and its colonization of semiarid habitats of southeastern Iberia to gain insights into the historical processes underlying the biogeographic connections between northern African and southern European arid‐dwelling faunas.LocationMediterranean region.TaxonCrested grasshoppers Dericorys millierei and Dericorys carthagonovae (Orthoptera: Dericorythidae).MethodsWe used genomic data (ddRAD‐seq) to quantify the genetic structure of populations, infer the phylogenetic relationships among them, estimate divergence times, and elucidate the demographic processes accompanying the colonization of southeastern Iberia. Genomic‐based inferences were interpreted in the light of eustatic sea‐level reconstructions and species’ range dynamics derived from palaeodistribution modelling at fine temporal resolution.ResultsClustering analyses showed a strong genetic structure and phylogenomic inference revealed that Iberian populations are nested within a Maghrebian clade. Molecular dating analyses indicated that all lineages diverged during the Pleistocene (&lt;1.6 Ma), with point estimates coinciding with glacial periods and the accompanying sea level drops. According to palaeodistribution modelling, the species experienced severe range contractions during the coldest stages of the Pleistocene.Main conclusionsOur results indicate that the colonization of the Iberian Peninsula likely took place during the marked sea level drops characterizing the high‐amplitude climatic oscillations of the late Quaternary (&lt;0.5 Ma), which considerably reduced overseas distances between northern African and southern European landmasses and might have eased transmarine exchanges of terrestrial faunas. These findings emphasize the high relevance of the Maghreb region as a source of European thermophilous biotas and corroborate post‐Messinian biogeographic connections between the two continents despite the barrier effect of the Mediterranean Sea.

Evolution in the Model Genus Antirrhinum Based on Phylogenomics of Topotypic Material.

Researchers in phylogenetic systematics typically choose a few individual representatives of every species for sequencing based on convenience (neighboring populations, herbarium specimens, samples provided by experts, garden plants). However, few studies are based on original material, type material or topotypic material (living specimens from the locality where the type material was collected). The use of type or topotypic material in phylogenetic studies is paramount particularly when taxonomy is complex, such as that of Antirrhinum (Plantaginaceae). In this paper, we used topotypic materials of Antirrhinum at the species level (34 species proposed by previous authors), 87 specimens representing the species distributions and >50,000 informative nucleotide characters (from ∼4,000 loci) generated by the genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) technique: (i) to test two explicit taxonomic hypotheses widely followed by local taxonomic treatments; (ii) to robustly estimate phylogenetic relationships; (iii) to investigate the evolution of key morphological characters and biogeographic centers of differentiation. Two GBS phylogenies based on two datasets (87 localities and 34 topotypic specimens) revealed that: (1) Sutton’s (1988) taxonomic account is the most congruent with phylogenetic results, whereas division of Antirrhinum into three major clades disagrees with Rothmaler’s (1956) infrageneric classification; (2) monophyly of populations currently included in the same species is primarily supported; (3) the historically recognized Antirrhinum majus group is not monophyletic; (4) sister-group relationships are robust for eight species pairs; (5) the evolutionary radiation of 26 species since the Pliocene is underpinned given a high rate of diversification (0.54 spp. Myr–1); (6) a geographic pattern of speciation is reconstructed, with northern Iberia as the center of early diversification followed by more recent speciation in southeastern Iberia; and (7) multiple acquisitions of key taxonomic characters in the course of Antirrhinum diversification are strongly supported, with no evidence of hybridization between major clades. Our results also suggest incipient speciation in some geographic areas and point to future avenues of research in evolution and systematics of Antirrhinum.

Citizenship and religion in the first-millennium bce Mediterranean: from Etruria to Iberia

This short contribution summarises an impending research project that will be carried as part of the 2021–22 Distinguished Fellowship programme at the Max-Weber-Kolleg (University of Erfurt) within the research cluster Religion and Urbanity. The aim of the project is to contribute to a comparative understanding of first-millennium bce Mediterranean urbanism by focusing on citizenship, through the investigation of the archaeological record of ritual contexts in two selected regions: southern Tyrrhenian Etruria and southeastern Iberia. The project builds on recent research on comparative urbanism and the role of religion in urban life, from Greek history to interdisciplinary studies on religion. The particular focus will be to understand whether, and the extent to which, religion provided the conceptual and material space for expressing membership to the urban community or, in one word, citizenship.

Argaric craftswomen: Sex-based division of labor in the Bronze Age southeastern Iberia

The macroscopic and microscopic analyses of teeth from the Castellón Alto individuals belonging to El Argar culture (Southeastern Iberia), dated from Bronze Age, were carried out to identify non-alimentary uses of teeth and the tasks associated with the use of teeth as tools. Macroscopically, we identify 5 out of 106 individuals showing atypical dental features compatible with non-alimentary tooth use. The teeth of these individuals were analyzed in depth with scanning electron microscopy to identify non-alimentary dental features. Evidence of non-alimentary uses of teeth such as enamel chipping, notches, occlusal, and interproximal grooves were recorded from five individuals. One of the most outstanding results is that only 5 females of 106 total individuals showed the use of teeth as tools. The dental wear features of these five individuals indicate the use of teeth as tools to carry out some tasks related to thread and cordages preparation for textile and/or basketry production, suggesting not only occupational specialization but also sex-based division of labor in the Bronze Age of Southeastern Iberia.

Phenomenology and geographical gradients of atmospheric deposition in southwestern Europe: Results from a multi-site monitoring network

This article presents the results of atmospheric deposition from a 15-sites network which cover remote, agricultural, urban and industrial areas in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, with the aim of exploring geographical, climatic and natural vs anthropogenic gradients. Annual average fluxes of global deposition, discriminating insoluble (3,5–20,7 g m−2 year−1) and soluble-inorganic (7,1–45,5 g m−2 year−1) aerosols are discussed, seasonal patterns are regarded, and an attempt to estimate the impact of the main sources is presented. The wide range of atmospheric deposition fluxes (DF) regarding soluble (DFSOL) and insoluble (DFINS) has been investigated taking into consideration the contribution from nearby to long-distance sources, such as African dust, or regional-to-nearby ones, which include agricultural dust in the Ebro Valley, industrial emissions at different parts, urban dust at all cities, or saline dust resuspension from a dissicated lake bed.DFSOL is made up of marine aerosols, prevailing in coastal areas, with few exceptions in the Ebro Valley; nitrogen-species, homogeneously distributed across the network, with few exceptions due to agricultural sources; mineral dust, enhanced in the Ebro Valley owing to regional and agricultural emissions; and phospathe, displaying comparable values to other studies in general, but three hotspots at regional background environments have been identified.DFINS particles followed the aridity pattern, especially where anthropogenic emissions take place. Our estimates indicate that the regional dust to DFINS in the Ebro Valley represented 23–30%, overpassing 50% at intensive agricultural areas. Similarly, urban-metropolitan contributions accounted for 37–45% at the four cities, and 55% at the industrial one. African dust deposition was enhanced in the Central Pyrenees (75–80%) as a result of the magnification of atmospheric washout processes, and in south-eastern Iberia (69%) owing to the higher frequency of dust outbreaks.

New insights into Holocene hydrology and temperature from lipid biomarkers in western Mediterranean alpine wetlands

Alpine regions of the Mediterranean realm are among the most climatically sensitive areas in the world. Thus, alpine wetlands from the southern Iberian Peninsula, in the westernmost part of the Mediterranean region, are highly sensitive sensors of environmental changes. Difficulties have surfaced in separating controls by temperature and/or precipitation in previous paleoenvironmental studies from alpine environments in this area. We present a Holocene biomarker record (n-alkanes and long-chain diols) from a high elevation lake, Laguna de Río Seco (LdRS), in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, which contributes to the identification of these forcing mechanisms. The hydrological history of the area, primarily water availability and evapotranspiration, is reconstructed by means of the n-alkane record, including the indices of average chain length, portion aquatic, and carbon preference index, as well as hydrogen isotopes (δD) of aquatic (δDaq) and terrestrial (δDwax) n-alkanes. Temperatures are also estimated using the algae derived long-chain diols. We interpret δDaq and δDwax fluctuations as showing changes in the source and amount of precipitation throughout the LdRS record. An Atlantic precipitation source appears to have predominated during the early-middle Holocene, but an occasional Mediterranean influence with an isotopic enrichment in precipitation is detected in the middle-late Holocene that is likely related to the setting of the current atmospheric pattern in southeastern Iberia under the joint control of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the Western Mediterranean dynamics, such as the Western Mediterranean Oscillation (WeMO). Our new record from LdRS is consistent with a generalized trend of a humid early-middle Holocene with low temperature variability, evolving towards an arid middle-late Holocene with abrupt temperature changes. In addition to these long-term trends during the last ∼10,500 years, two phases of climate instability, evidenced by abrupt depletions in δDaq, have been identified at the end of these periods, one between ∼6500 and 5500 cal yr BP and another in the last ∼500 years. These episodes would represent strengthened winter cold conditions that favoured the persistence of snowpack and frozen soil in the catchment, causing reduced terrestrial plant growth and low lake evaporation. According to the long-chain diol record, temperatures during these phases were relatively low, but experienced abrupt increases at the end of each period.

The radiocarbon chronology and temporality of the megalithic cemetery of Los Millares (Almería, Spain)

In 2012, a radiocarbon dating programme was undertaken to explore the chronology and temporality of megalithic monuments in south-eastern Iberia. After obtaining a new radiocarbon series of 90 dates that have changed many of our current approaches to this phenomenon, we have expanded the radiocarbon programme to one of the most iconic megalithic necropolises in Iberia, the cemetery of Los Millares. The new radiocarbon series modelled in a Bayesian framework was analysed in the context of the site including the settlement and the surrounding “forts”. The results led us to four main conclusions: (i) that mortuary activity began in last centuries of the 4th millennium cal BC (3219–3124 cal BC, 68% probability), preceding the settlement foundation by up to 230 years; (ii) that the tombs appear to have been used at different times and with different intensities; (iii) that “forts” were built when most of the settlement was abandoned and only the inner enclosure would remain inhabited; and (iv) that the end of the funerary and housing activities occurred in similar chronological intervals, before ca. 2200 cal BC.

Geodetic Deformation versus Seismic Crustal Moment-Rates: Insights from the Ibero-Maghrebian Region

Seismic and geodetic moment-rate comparisons can reveal regions with unexpected potential seismic hazards. We performed such a comparison for the Southeastern Iberia—Maghreb region. Located at the western Mediterranean border along the Eurasia–Nubia plate convergence, the region has been subject to a number of large earthquakes (M ≥ 6.5) in the last millennium. To this end, on the basis of available geological, tectonic, and seismological data, we divided the study area into twenty-five seismogenic source zones. Many of these seismogenic source zones, comprising the Western Betics, the Western Rif mountains, and the High, Middle, and Saharan Atlas, are characterized by seismic/geodetic ratio values lower than 23%, evidencing their prevailing aseismic behavior. Intermediate seismic/geodetic ratio values (between 35% and 60%) have been observed for some zones belonging to the Eastern Betics, the central Rif, and the Middle Atlas, indicating how crustal seismicity accounts only for a moderate fraction of the total deformation-rate budget. High seismic/geodetic ratio values (&gt; 95%) have been observed along the Tell Atlas, highlighting a fully seismic deformation.

Redefining the role of metal production during the Bronze Age of south-eastern Iberia. The mines of eastern Sierra Morena

Researchers have traditionally paid little attention to mining by Bronze Age communities in the south-east of the Iberian Peninsula. This has changed recently due to the identification of new mineral exploitations from this period during the archaeo-mining surveys carried out in the Rumblar and Jándula valleys in the Sierra Morena Mountains between 2009-2014, as well as the excavation of the José Martín Palacios mine (Baños de la Encina, Jaén). The analysis of the archaeological evidence and the archaeometric results reveal the importance of mining and metallurgical activities undertaken by the communities that inhabited the region between 2200 and 900 cal. BC, when it became one of the most important copper and silver production centers during the Late Prehistory of south-eastern Iberia.

Redefining the role of metal production during the Bronze Age of south-eastern Iberia. The mines of eastern Sierra Morena

Researchers have traditionally paid little attention to mining by Bronze Age communities in the south-east of the Iberian Peninsula. This has changed recently due to the identification of new mineral exploitations from this period during the archaeo-mining surveys carried out in the Rumblar and Jándula valleys in the Sierra Morena Mountains between 2009-2014, as well as the excavation of the José Martín Palacios mine (Baños de la Encina, Jaén). The analysis of the archaeological evidence and the archaeometric results reveal the importance of mining and metallurgical activities undertaken by the communities that inhabited the region between 2200 and 900 cal. BC, when it became one of the most important copper and silver production centers during the Late Prehistory of south-eastern Iberia.