Southeastern Anatolia Project Research Articles

Determination of Trend and Magnitude of Drought Events in Time and Space: An Application in the Area of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP)

İklim değişikliği, kuraklık gidişinin alansal ve zamansal yayılımının izlenmesinde farklı yaklaşımları ortaya konarak analitik çözümlemeleri ihtiyaç haline getirmiştir. Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi (GAP) kapsamında; 19 242 km²’lik büyüklüğü ile sulama alanlarının %50’sine sahip Şanlıurfa’da yürütülen bu çalışmada, farklı yöntemler kullanılarak meteorolojik kuraklığın alansal-zamansal eğiliminin ve büyüklüğünün (hızının) belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmada; Şanlıurfa, Birecik, Akçakale, Ceylanpınar ve Siverek meteoroloji istasyonlarının 1965-2020, Bozova istasyonun ise 2000-2020 yıllarına ait yıllık toplam yağış ve ortalama yıllık maksimum sıcaklık serileri kullanılmıştır. Her istasyon için “Erinç Kuraklık/Aridite İndeksi”(EKİ) yıllık olarak hesaplanmış; EKİ serilerine Run (Swed-Eisenhart), Otokorelasyon, Mann-Kendall gidiş ve Sen eğim gidiş testleri %5 önem düzeyinde uygulanmıştır. Run ve otokorelasyon testine göre EKİ (Im) serilerinin bağımsız oldukları sonucuna varılmıştır. EKİ serilerinin medyan değerleri, Mann-Kendall gidiş testi ve Sen eğim gidiş analizi sonucunda hesaplanan istatistikler kullanılarak Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemi ortamında Ters Uzaklık Yöntemi ile; “Mann-Kendall Gidiş”, “Sen Eğim Gidiş” ve “Erinç Kuraklık İndeksi” haritaları elde edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak Şanlıurfa ilinde kuzeyden güneye doğru EKİ değerlerinin azalan yönde anlamlı gidişler oluşturduğu, gidiş hızlarının (Im/yıl) azalan yönde artış gösterdiği belirlenmiştir. Beklenen bir şekilde, Suriye sınırına yaklaştıkça kuraklık şiddetinin artığı saptanmıştır. Atatürk, Birecik ve Karkamış barajlarının Şanlıurfa'daki kuzeyden güneye doğru olan alansal ve zamansal kuraklık gidişini Bozova haricinde engellemesinin beklenemeyeceği sonucuna varılmıştır.

Determination of the tolerance of physiological, morphological, and yield parameters of landrace durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) to high-temperature stress

In the South-eastern Anatolia Region, where the climate is favorable to cultivation for durum wheat, there have been notable reductions in both yield and quality due to biotic and abiotic stress factors in the region. Primary one of these stresses is high-temperature stress. High-temperature stress, specifically during the late flowering stage and early grain filling stage, results in substantial reductions in both crop yield and quality. In this study, several practical, easily and rapidly quantifiable physiological, morphological, and yield-related parameters that may be used in durum wheat improvement programs in the region for high-temperature stress tolerance were investigated. Ninety landrace durum genotypes and 4 standard cultivars were used. The study was carried out at GAP (South-eastern Anatolia Project) International Agricultural Research and Training Centre in an air conditioning room according to an augmented design under optimum conditions and stressful conditions where high-temperature stress was created. Compared to optimum conditions, there were reductions in flag leaf greening time by 20%, days to maturity by 7%, spike length by 10%, peduncle length by 18%, grain filling time by 23%, number of spikelets on the spike by 12%, number of grains on the spike by 39%, and thousand-kernel weight by 33%, while grain filling rate increased under high-temperature stress conditions. The genotypes 82, 83, 87, 88, 99, and 103 and the standard varieties Artuklu and Sümerli prevailed in both optimum and stress conditions. The fact that leaf erectness, flag leaf greening time, grain filling time, and leaf chlorophyll content among morphological and physiological characteristics had a significant correlation with yield components under both conditions indicates that these characteristics can be used as selection criteria for tolerance to stressful conditions in the region.

Determination of Whitefly Species (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in Southeastern Anatolia Region

Türkiye’nin tüm bölgelerinde tespit edilen Beyazsinek (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) türleri üzerinde yapılan taksonomik bir çalışmadır. Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi (GAP) faliyete başlamasıyla artan bitki türü çeşitliliği ve tüm yıl ürün alınabilmesimesinden kaynaklı olarak tüm yıl varlığını koruyan bir zararlı konumuna gelmiştir. Ayrıca tarımsal sulamadan dolayı artan nem oranı Beyazsinek yoğunluğu artırmış olup bu nedenle tarımsal ürünlerde ciddi zarar verdiği için Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi için önemli bir zararlı olmuştur. 2019-2022 yılları arasında Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi’nde bulunan Şırnak, Siirt, Batman, Diyarbakır, Mardin, Şanlıurfa, Adıyaman, Gaziantep ve Kilis illerindeki farklı konukçulardan toplanan Aleyrodidae familyasına ait türler, pupa ve pupa kabuğunadan morfolojik tanı karakterleri kullanılarak Beyazsinek (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) türlerinin belirlenmesi amacıyla yapılmıştır. Çalışmada tarım, orman ve tarım dışı alanlardan örnekler toplanmıştır. Çalışma esnasında örnek toplama yılın tüm dönemlerinde düzensiz çıkışlar yapılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Toplanan örneklerden 9 beyazsinek türü tespit edilmiştir. Bu türler; Bemisia afer, B. tabaci, Dialeurodes citri, Dialeurolobus pulcher, D. rhamni, Massileurodes setiger, Siphoninus phillyreae, Trialeurodes vaporariroum ve Tetraleurodes neemani olarak tespit edilmiştir.

Türkiye ekolojik koşullarında damla sulama sistemi ile yetiştirilen iki farklı jüt (Corchorus capsularis, Corchorus olitorius) türünün kimyasal bileşimlerinin GC-MS tekniği ile belirlenmesi

Objective: In this study, it is aimed to introduce a new plant to Turkish agriculture and to determine its chemical composition by revealing can also be grown in Türkiye's ecological conditions of the Jute plant, which stands out with the use of fibers in the industrial field and the use of leaves as a food product. Materials and Methods: The seeds used in the research were obtained from the Şanlıurfa Southeastern Anatolia Project Agricultural Research Institute. The trial was carried out in 2019 in the trial area of Bingöl University Agricultural Application and Research Center for the production of two different Jute (Corchorus capsularis, Corchorus olitorius) species. The drip irrigation method was used in the experiment. Water coming from the irrigation canal was applied with drip irrigation pipes with diameter as 16 mm pressure adjustment, exiting from pipes with a diameter of 75 mm. Some physical and chemical properties of the soil of the trial area were determined as a result of the analysis of the samples taken from the parcel. In the study, the extraction method created by the Bingöl University Central Laboratory Application and Research Center by revising the method of Hara and Radin (1978) was used and the chemical compositions of the leaves and stems of both species were analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).Results: According to GC-MS results, a total of 18 and 20 components were detected in the leaf parts of Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis species, respectively, and a total of 11 and 29 components (hydrocarbons, fatty acid methyl esters, essential fatty acids, phenolic/aromatic compounds) were also detected in the stem parts of these species, respectively. Conclusion: It is of great importance to bring this plant bearing value in terms of crop fiber industry, nutrition and medicine, in our country and to increase the studies to be carried out in Türkiye. The results of this study we have done, will present the ground for future studies on the Jute plant in the similar regions of our country.

Compound Effects of Climate Change on Future Transboundary Water Issues in the Middle East

AbstractThe Middle East is one of the world's most vulnerable areas to climate change, which has exacerbated environmental, agricultural, water conflict, and public health issues in the region. Here we analyze the latest climate model projections of precipitation and temperature for the very high emissions scenario, SSP5‐8.5, to detect potential future changes in this region. A baseline period (1981–2010) is compared with the middle (2040–2069) and end (2070–2099) of the 21st century. The results, representing the worst‐case scenario, identify the Tigris‐Euphrates headwaters as the hotspot of future compounding effects of climate change in the Middle East. Those effects result from the coincidence of elevated temperature, reduced precipitation, and enhanced interannual variability of precipitation. The hotspot overlays the location of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (in Turkish, Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi [GAP]) irrigation initiative. In this climate context, risks to GAP viability and downstream water security, and associated potential for water‐related conflicts and migration are considerable and demand a reconsideration of the risk‐benefit assessment of GAP. This need has become more urgent after the recent widespread and deadly climate‐related conflicts and wildfires in summer 2021 across the Middle East that further underlined vulnerability of the region to climate extremes.

A HISTORICAL EVALUATION ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE İN TURKEY: (1983-1989)

Main aim of this study is to reveal the development policies implemented in Turkey between 1983- 1989, the reforms made for the economy to be outward oriented in globalization process, the problems experienced in the transition from liberalism to neo-liberal economy policies. Turgut Ozal became prime minister in the general elections of 1983 and 1987 and ultimately became one of the important names direct the economy. As soon as Ozal became the head of economy, he made financial adjustments to ensure Turkey's integration with the European Economic Community in line with globalization. He then implemented the framework of the economic and development plan in line with the January 24 decisions and the principles set out in the party programme. During his premiership, he wanted to complete infrastructure works as soon as possible for the development of the industrial and service sectors. He also wanted to eliminate regional differences and carry out Southeastern Anatolia Project to develop Southeastern Anatolia Region. During his period, political bans were lifted, and Turkish society gaining the right to make individual applications to the European Court of Human Rights, experienced important developments in terms of democratization. In this research, with an interdisciplinary approach, and an attempt was made to penetrate the period by making use of official publications, archival documents, Cumhuriyet and Milliyet newspapers. In addition, the process of the plan's arrival in Parliament from the Budget Commission and discussions in Parliament were examined. With this study, it is aimed to contribute to the literature by revealing the effects of neo-liberal policies in education and other fields, which were followed as an economic model together with globalization during Ozal's premiership, the extent to which the new system benefits economic and community development, with its historical and sociological dimensions.

Проєкт Південно-Східної Анатолії (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi) як засіб вирівнювання диспропорцій регіонального розвитку в республіці Туреччина

The purpose is to find out the main goals and stages of the South-Eastern Anatolia Project, to analyze the successes and failures of its implementation, to study the socio-economic effect of the project in terms of equalizing disparities in the development of the regions of Turkey. Scientific novelty the paper is the first subject research in Ukrainian historiography related to the South-Eastern Anatolia Project. Result. The paper describes the process of formation and implementation of the Gьneydoрu Anadolu Projesi (GAP) as a multi-sectoral integrated regional project aimed at developing the south-eastern region of Turkey, the main phase of which was completed during 1977 – 2010, and some components continue for current time. The author substantiates that the GAP has become not only a means of eliminating the disparity in the socio-economic development of the regions of Turkey, but also a tool for non-violent settlement of the «Kurdish issue». It is concluded that the GAP implementation made possible to partially eliminate the disparity in the development of the leading north-western and depressed south-eastern regions, increase the welfare of the population of South-Eastern Anatolia and ensure relative social stability. GAP increased the volume of hydropower production and increased the area of   irrigated agriculture. The Project provided more than 3 million new job places in South-Eastern Anatolia over twenty years. GAP created an extensive network of educational and healthcare institutions in the region, to build a large-scale infrastructure.  

Are You Happy to Be a Farmer? Understanding Indicators Related to Agricultural Production and Influencing Factors: GAP-Şanlıurfa, Turkey

Recently, agricultural production areas and farmer numbers have been decreasing in Turkey, which has started to cause concern. This study aimed to analyze the satisfaction levels of farmers in different irrigation areas in the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP)-Şanlıurfa region, based on indicators related to agricultural production and influencing factors. The data were obtained through face-to-face surveys with farmers in 2020 and analyzed by logistic regression in STATA. According to the results, 43.3% of the farmers are happy to be farmers in the current situation, and 35.6% want their children to continue farming activities. It was determined that the area of irrigation, education level, income, and farming experience were statistically significant at different rates in terms of the happiness of the farmers. On the other hand, livestock, number of households, and land size were not statistically significant. While 27.5% of the participants were fully satisfied with the given public support, 15.7% were satisfied with the market selling prices of their products, and 43.5% stated that effective organizations are needed to live well. To ensure agricultural sustainability in the research area, there is a need for more agricultural support, effective extension services, and the development of rural tourism with the participation of the public and private sectors. This study was the first of its kind to be conducted in Turkey.

Integrated GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Analysis for Groundwater Potential Mapping in the Euphrates’s Sub-Basin, Harran Basin, Turkey

The Harran Basin is an important region where agricultural activities have been conducted for millennia. The agricultural water needs of the basin are largely met with surface irrigation through the GAP (South-Eastern Anatolian Project), while groundwater is used in some regions as potable water, tap water, and irrigation water. In this study, the groundwater potential of the Harran Basin was determined through the “GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM)” Method. Ten criteria were considered: Land Use, Soil, Geomorphology, Geology, Aquifer, Drainage Density, Rainfall, Slope, Lineament Density, and Terrain Class. The weights of these criteria were determined through the AHP method, and the operations were performed in the ArcGIS environment. As the results of this study, the Groundwater Potential Index (GWPI) values were obtained, and five regions were determined based on their Groundwater Potential Zone (GWPZ) classifications: very poor GWPI: 0.10% (5.14 km2); poor GWPI: 29.20%; moderate GWPI: 38.20%; good GWPI: 30.90%; and very good GWPI: 1.50%). We determined that the region is a plain with a low slope and geologically consists of limestone. Notably, areas with poor water potential are mountainous and hilly, and the slopes over these areas are high.

Determination of Erodiblity (USLE-K) Status of Suruc Plain Soils Before Transition to Irrigated Agriculture within the Scope of Southeastern Anatolia Project

Erosion is a major problem that limits vegetative production, adversely affects the ecosystem and causes soil losses that are difficult to recover. This study was carried out with the aim of determining the erosion status and some soil properties of the soils of Suruc plain in Sanlıurfa province. Soil properties; It has been determined that the pH is slightly high, the soils are non-saline, the organic matter is medium and the soil is clayey. Expresses the change of data by the coefficient of variance (CV). The lowest variability (CV = 2.45) in the soils of Suruç plain is the other parameters, respectively, the clay ratio (CV = 19.27) medium level, silt ratio (CV = 20.64) medium level, organic matter (CV = 27.14) medium level and sand ratio. (CV = 27.34) varies moderately. It was determined that the soil properties showing the highest variability were lime (CV = 37.06), EC (CV = 38.89) hydraulic conductivity (CV = 695.41). According to the correlation coefficient of soil erosion (USLE-K) parameter (r=0.99**) and P <0.01 level, it was determined that there is a very important relationship. The high coefficient of variation of some soil properties revealed the need for more sampling in the area. According to the frequency table, the erosive degrees of the soils are determined to be 10% very little, 26% less, 56% medium and 8% strongly erodable soils. In the Suruc plain, which will be opened to irrigation within the scope of the Southeastern Anatolia project, instead of traditional irrigation methods, more suitable irrigation systems should be chosen according to the soil characteristics and the slope of the land.

Landsat time series reveal simultaneous expansion and intensification of irrigated dry season cropping in Southeastern Turkey

ABSTRACT Long-term monitoring of the extent and intensity of irrigation systems is needed to track crop water consumption and to adapt land use to a changing climate. We mapped the expansion and changes in the intensity of irrigated dry season cropping in Turkey´s Southeastern Anatolia Project annually from 1990 to 2018 using Landsat time series. Irrigated dry season cropping covered 5,779 km² (± 479 km²) in 2018, which represents an increase of 617% over the study period. Dry season cropping was practiced on average every second year, but spatial variability was pronounced. Increases in dry season cropping frequency were observed on 40% of the studied croplands. The presented maps enable the identification of land use intensity hotspots at 30 m spatial resolution, and can thus aid in assessments of water consumption and environmental degradation. All maps are openly available for further use at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4287661.

Groundwater Quality Assessment Using GIS Based on some Pollution Indicators over the Past 10 Years (2005–2015): a Case Study from Semi-Arid Harran Plain, Turkey

Harran Plain is the largest plain within the area administered under the Southeastern Anatolia Project (known as the GAP project in Turkey), covering an area of 1500 km2. This article presents results of groundwater quality assessment based on some pollution indicators such as electrical conductivity (EC) and nitrate (NO3−) values in Harran Plain between 2005 and 2015. In order to show the change of EC and NO3− contamination in 20 observation wells located on the plain, seasonal average concentration distribution maps based on 2005 and 2015 were created. The results were then evaluated based on national and international standards and classifications. As a result; EC and NO3− values decreased throughout the plain from 2005 (max 8235 μS/cm, 720 mg/L) to 2015 (max 2510 μS/cm, 327 μS/cm). The observation wells where EC and NO3− values registered as high in 2005 were W8-Kisas, W11-Ugurlu, W14-Kizildoruc, W15-Yardimli, W16-Ozlu, and W20-Ugrakli, while in 2015, it was W11-Ugurlu and W14-Kizildoruc. The positive effects of the measures taken and improvements in the plain such as irrigation systems, correct fertilizer applications, closed drainage systems, and product pattern change have realized positive results with the reduced NO3− and EC levels. However, a different situation was observed for NO3− at the points where nitrate was low in 2005, with a comparatively slight increase recorded in 2015. The reason for this minimal increase was considered to be continued fertilizer application, applied fertilization method, and increased urbanization in addition to uncontrolled and over-irrigation.

Development through design: Knowledge, power, and absences in the making of southeastern Turkey

The Foucauldian concept of power-knowledge has been a useful lens to study the idea, discourse, and practice of development. Since the 1980s, many scholars have employed this critical framework to unearth the overlooked power relations created and altered by the concept of development in general, and development projects in particular. This article contributes to this debate by advancing and enriching this perspective. Analyzing a broad number of official sources supporting Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Project (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi, GAP) and drawing theoretically on the concept of power of Michel Foucault and absences of Boaventura de Sousa Santos, we argue that GAP is part of a state strategy to produce southeastern Turkey by design and the representation of lack. We develop a framework that helps us understand the narratives on the project as a design of absences, a design-power that works as a particular form of power-knowledge. In the terrain of absences, design has become the way to exercise power together with the observation of geography and population. The absences created by the development discourse become a key-feature of design-power. In this sense, GAP is design-power to produce a new region and new subjectivities and works as a particular form of power-knowledge.

SU POTANSİYELİ AÇISINDAN BİR ARAŞTIRMA: DİCLE HAVZASI

The Tigris Basin covers East Part of Southeastern Anatolia- Regio/ı and Souîheastern Part of Eastern Anatolia Region. The Tigris Basin is drained by the Tigris River, which is one of the most important rivers in Türkiye. Total area of the Tigris Basin in Türkiye is 53874 square kilometers with respect to the Square Method. Our study area is 43970 square kilometers except Zap River Basin. The basin has different structures and relief features. Topography has great influence on the climate of the basin. Although there is mucit precipitation in the basin, aridity occurs in irrigation ternı As productive agriculture soil in the basin is not projiied exactly, some regional projects such as GAP (Southeastern Anatolia Project) areplanned in the basin. Planned dams both will eliminate irrigation problem and tvill generale hydroelectric energy. Nowadays, the Tigris Basin which consists of many important settlements is capable of carrying out the role of ancient Mesopotamia Civiiization. in this study, it is aimed to give a contribution about how water potential of the Tigris Basin can be used effectively.

Hydrological Impact of Ilisu Dam on Mosul Dam; the River Tigris

The Ilisu Dam is part of the Turkish Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) and is the largest dam on the Tigris River in Turkey. It is located on the main river course 65 km upstream of the Syrian and Iraqi border. The Ilisu Dam watershed is the same as that of the Mosul Dam in Iraq. Sharing the same watershed with the Mosul Dam and located upstream, the Ilisu Dam will usurp most of the watershed and deprive the Mosul Dam of most of its current inflow. This paper presents an assessment of the hydrological impact (basically predicts changes on future inflow) of the Ilisu Dam on the Mosul Dam. The assessment is based on the worst-case scenario. The analyses that are employed include geographic information system (GIS) techniques and regression models, along with statistical analyses to numerate expected future impacts on the Mosul Dam’s inflow distribution. Results reveal that the Ilisu will have a drastic impact on the inflow regime of the Mosul Dam. A reduction as high as 78% of the inflow of the Mosul Dam may occur if the operation of the Ilisu and the Cizre Dams is conducted with no consideration of downstream hydrological and environment impacts.

Determination of seasonal variation in reference evapotranspiration using regression analysis

In the study, variability in reference evapotranspiration (ET0) from Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP) area was investigated with linear regression method. For the purpose, seasonal ET0 time series were formed from monthly reference evapotranspiration (ET0). The ET0 data sets of three sites showed a statistically significance decreasing trend while there was upward trend in some seasons of two sites. But, variation in all seasonal ET0 time series of Kilis site was not detected.

Modeling the hydroclimatic effects of local land use and land cover changes on the water budget in the upper Euphrates – Tigris basin

The waters of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers have always been a vital resource in the water-food-energy nexus of the Middle East region. The currently ongoing Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) in Turkey aims to increase regional prosperity by optimizing the use of these waters for irrigation and hydropower. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the irrigation schemes and water management infrastructures within the scope of the GAP have caused significant land use and land cover (LULC) change in this semi-arid region. We employed a high resolution regional climate model to simulate the effects of irrigation induced LULC changes on the regional water and energy balances. For this purpose, historical simulations were conducted by using three land cover distributions which reflect the increase in irrigation and water surfaces. Our experiment reveals that water loss through evapotranspiration increases significantly with the areal expansion of irrigation. This increase is driven by the change in partitioning of the available energy at the surface between turbulent heat fluxes. On the one hand, a significant reduction in sensible heat flux causes local cooling by around 0.4 °C and 0.8 °C for the current and future irrigation conditions, respectively. On the other hand, the increase in latent heat flux enhances evapotranspiration and consequently atmospheric water vapor concentration. The moistening of a shallower boundary layer triggers the formation of convective clouds, which increases convective precipitation, most notably during the irrigation months. The enhanced water loss through evapotranspiration has potential to significantly alter the water budget of the GAP region. It seems that the water surplus of the headwaters region may not be enough to meet the water deficit of the GAP region in the future if the planned irrigation schemes are carried out to completion.

Is Development the Continuation of ‘Anti-politics’ by Other Means? An Investigation Based on the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) in Turkey

In simplest terms, depoliticization refers to a systemic condition that inscribes the whole of society or to a distinct governing strategy for disguising the political nature of policy process. Understood as a condition, a strategy, or both, the concept has been employed to examine a wide array of policy issues until recently. Especially in development studies, the concept has been increasingly utilized to examine the rationale, mechanisms, and ramifications of development projects that were carried out in different parts of the world. Except a few examples, however, the depoliticizing implications of development schemes in Turkey have not received adequate scholarly attention. This article investigates Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Project (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi, GAP) in the conceptual guidance of depoliticization approach. The article explores how a neoliberal agenda has trivialized political issues such as those concerning distribution, resource use, inequality, inclusion, or conflict in southeastern Turkey. It critically assesses how the dominance of experts, the subscription to the ‘homo oeconomicus’ model, and the developmentalization of security policy have operated as means of depoliticization within the project. In this way, it provides a new perspective regarding how policymakers and project authorities attempt to ‘economize’ or ‘technicize’ the political in project frameworks and sites.

Hydraulic Mission at Home, Hydraulic Mission abroad? Examining Turkey’s Regional ‘Pax-Aquarum’ and Its Limits

Water resource development has always been considered as a strategic tool by the Turkish ruling elites to reach food and energy security, as well as to enhance domestic peace and stability since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey. Therefore, the concept of “hydraulic mission” fits this strategic understanding, and it has become a prevailing paradigm in Turkey’s water resource development. Many academic works have already been conducted to understand how Turkey has waged an ambitious hydraulic mission by securitizing its water resource development primarily on economic and political bases. However, fewer studies have shown how the Turkish ruling elites have also considered Turkey’s extensive hydraulic development, sanctioned by the hydraulic mission, as a foreign policy tool to enhance its influence at the international level. Drawing primarily upon the concept of opportunitisation and the body of literature that looks at, albeit indirectly, the international aspect of the hydraulic mission, this study fills this gap in the literature by looking at three case studies: The Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP), the Water Export Initiatives to the Middle East, and the Water Transfer Project to Cyprus, namely the Peace Water Project. Being informed by an in-depth investigation of those three case studies, this study argues that ambitious hydraulic development projects conducted by the Turkish government do not only serve to keep peace and stability at the domestic level, but they are also strategic tools to enhance Turkey’s influence abroad. However, this study also shows the limits of Turkey’s hydraulic mission abroad. While Turkey promotes those water initiatives as tools for improving regional peace and stability, they are challenged by the recipient countries on social, economic, and political bases.

Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP): a qualitative review of the literature

ABSTRACT The Southeastern Anatolia Project (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi, GAP) is one of the largest regional development projects ever implemented in the Middle East. Launched officially in the 1970s to develop the water and land resources of southeastern Turkey, GAP has over time evolved from a predominantly technical, largely state-led and mainly infrastructural and economic development-oriented project into a primarily social, largely market-friendly and chiefly sustainable and human development-oriented project. Parallel to this evolution, GAP has grown more visible in political and public discourses. The implications of the project, for instance, on the ecology and cultural heritages, on the Kurdish Question, and on water issue among Turkey, Syria and Iraq have become clearer. However, despite growing academic and policy interest on GAP, there has been no attempt to provide a literature review on the project. Even more than 40 years after GAP was begun, a bird’s eye view of researched and under-researched topics in the literature has not been introduced yet. This article seeks to present a qualitative review of GAP-related literature. In this way, it seeks to constitute an initial step to establish a base for more expansive reviews and to provide guidance to interested and involved researchers, practitioners and policymakers.