South Darfur Research Articles

Science in times of war: reflections from Sudan

The war that erupted in Sudan on 15th April 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and Rapid Support Force (RSF) resulted in widespread destruction of national infrastructures, including the educational and research systems. Based on the personal experiences of the authors, this paper discussed the impact of the war on science and community of scientists who remained in Sudan during the war, including the resultant challenges, opportunities offered, and future perspectives. Clearly, the war brought about unquantifiable devastation on professional and personal lives of scientists; internal and external displacement and separation of scientists, colleagues, and families; loss of research and teaching resources; loss of jobs and financial instability; and host of negative psychological, emotional and social issues. Given that more than 10.4 million Sudanese were forcibly displaced, among them scientists, the educational system has been hampered. Available data indicate that in Khartoum State, 39% of governmental and 73% of non-governmental universities were occupied by RSF, whereas it was 10% of governmental and 8% of non-governmental universities in Gezira state. This contrasts with 3% of governmental and 5% of non-governmental university in South Darfur. Some universities and colleges were partially or completely damaged, while in some it was not possible to determine the damage. This has led to complete shutdown of the universities, forcing students to find expensive alternative ways to continue their education or abandon it altogether. Scientists and science in Sudan faced many challenges, which are difficult to overcome. While efforts to restore infrastructure and physical capital will be challenging, the social, psychological, and emotional devastation might be even more intricate. Revitalizing policies and international efforts are needed to support the recovery of the entire educational systems and research infrastructures, as well as the wellbeing of scientists.

First evaluation and detection of ivermectin resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep and goats in South Darfur, Sudan.

In Sudan, resistance to benzimidazoles has been reported recently in cattle and goats from South Darfur. Herein, ivermectin efficacy against gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) was evaluated in sheep and goats in three study areas in South Darfur. The faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) was used to evaluate the efficacy of ivermectin in sheep and goats naturally infected with GINs in the region of Bulbul (goats: n = 106), Kass (goats: n = 40) and Nyala (Domaia (sheep: n = 47, goats: n = 77) and the University farm (goats: n = 52)), using different treatment plans, and the efficacy was evaluated 12 days after treatment. Ivermectin efficacy was also evaluated in goats experimentally infected using local Haemonchus contortus isolates from Kass and Nyala. Nematodes surviving ivermectin treatment in goats in Bulbul and Nyala were harvested and larvae used to infect worm-free male sheep (n = 6, ≤6 months old). Infected sheep were dosed subcutaneously with ivermectin every eight days with increasing doses from 0.2 mg/kg to 1.6 mg/kg bodyweight (bw). Reduced ivermectin efficacy was identified in sheep and goats in the four study locations. Using a paired statistic, the efficacy of a therapeutic dose in sheep was 75.6% (90% upper credible limit (UCrL): 77.5%), while twice the recommended dose led to a reduction of 92.6% (90% UCrL: 93.3%). In goats, the FECRs of a therapeutic dose were 72.9-95.3% (90% UCrL range: 73.6-95.7%) in Bulbul, Nyala Domaia, Nyala University farm and Kass. Twice the dose recommended for goats in Bulbul revealed a 90% UCrL of 87.6%. All post-treatment faecal cultures contained only Haemonchus spp. larvae. The experimental infection trials in sheep and goats supported our findings from field trials and calculated upper 90% CrL of below 98.9%. For the first time highly ivermectin resistant H. contortus populations have been identified in sheep and goats in Sudan, and resistance was experimentally confirmed.

Outbreak of Diphtheria in South Darfur, Sudan

Outbreak of Diphtheria in South Darfur, Sudan

A study on the soil seed bank of Nyala area, south Darfur, Sudan

This research is an ecological study on the vegetation of Nyala area, South Darfur State, Sudan. The main objectives of this research is determination of soil seed bank of species in the study area. The collected plant species were identified checked via the aid of the herbarium of the Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum. Twenty-seven plant species have been identified from the study of soil seed bank. The most dominant of these species were Euphorbia aegyptiaca, Dactyloctenium eagypticum, Eragrostis tenella, Corchorus trilocularis and Amaranthus graecizans. The number of dead seeds/m2 on the upper soil surface layer (0-5 cm) was 12150, while that of live seeds was 5560. The number of dead seeds/m2 for the lower soil depth (5-10 cm) was 9707 and that of live seeds was 3254 seeds/m2. Statistical analysis of the data of the soil seed bank showed that there were statistically significant differences between the number of dead and live seeds/m2 at the same soil depth and among different soil depths.

A Survey on Major Infertility Causes in Crossbred Dairy Cattle Farms in Nyala City - South Darfur State - Sudan

A Survey on Major Infertility Causes in Crossbred Dairy Cattle Farms in Nyala City - South Darfur State - Sudan

First report of dengue virus among febrile malaria positive and negative patients in Nyala city, Western Sudan

Background: The mosquito borne dengue fever and malaria -; are major public health concerns in tropical settings. They are highly prevalent and considered one of the main etiology of febrile illnesses in Sudan. Aim: This study aimed to determine seroprevalence of dengue virus among febrile malaria positive and negative patients in Nyala city, Western Sudan by using Enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA) to detect dengue virus IgM and IgG antibodies. It also aimed to study possible risk factors that may be associated with dengue virus and malaria infections. Methods: This cross sectional study, which was undertaken in different Hospitals in Nyala city, South Darfur state Sudan during June to December 2021. A total of 93 blood samples from febrile patients were collected in EDTA containers. Plasma was obtained by centrifugation and tested by ELISA (EUROIMMUN, Germany) according to manufactures instructions for dengue virus IgG and IgM antibodies. Malaria parasites were detected using microscopy of stained blood smears. Generated data was analyzed using the statistical package (SPSS) version 21. Results: Forty six (49.5%) out of 93 febrile patients were found infected with malaria parasites using blood smear microscopy. Among these malaria infected patients, the prevalence of dengue anti-virus IgG (49 .5%) was higher than that of IgM (16.1%) but was statistically insignificant (p>0.05). In the present study dengue infection was higher in males than in females but was statistically insignificant (P> 0.05) and the Age group 21-40 years was the most affected with dengue virus infection. Conclusion: The present study showed higher prevalance rate of dengue IgG among the participants of study more than IgM but was statistically insignificant There was no association between age and gender with seroplevance of dengue virus among febrile patients with and without malaria. The frequent existence of infections of DENV requires improved surveillance and control measures to combat this disease in Nyala, Sudan.

Unraveling Key Chloroquine Resistance-Associated Alleles Among Plasmodium falciparum Isolates in South Darfur State, Sudan Twelve Years After Drug Withdrawal.

Due to the increasing resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine (CQ) in Sudan, a shift from CQ to artesunate combined with sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine as a first-line treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria was adopted in 2004. This study aimed to determine the frequency distribution of K76T and N86Y mutations in P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) genes as key markers of resistance to CQ among P. falciparum isolates from patients in Nyala district of South Darfur state, west of Sudan. A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted among 75 P. falciparum isolates from Sudanese patients diagnosed with falciparum malaria mono-infection. Parasite DNA was extracted from dried blood spots and amplified using a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Then, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) was used to detect the genetic polymorphisms in codons 76 of pfcrt and 86 of pfmdr1. PCR-RFLP products were analyzed using 1.5% gel electrophoresis to identify the genetic polymorphisms in the studied codons. The wild-type (pfcrt K76 and pfmdr1 N86), mutant (pfcrt 76T and pfmdr1 86Y) and mixed-type (pfcrt K76T and pfmdr1 N86Y) alleles were expressed as frequencies and proportions. The wild-type pfcrt K76 allele was observed among 34.7% of isolates and the mutant 76T allele among 20% of isolates, while the mixed-type K76T allele was observed among 45.3% of isolates. On the other hand, 54.7% of isolates harbored the wild-type pfmdr1 N86 allele and 5.3% of isolates had the mutant 86Y allele, while the mixed-type N86Y allele was observed among 40% of isolates. The key molecular markers associated with CQ resistance (pfcrt 76T and pfmdr1 86Y) are still circulating in high frequency among P. falciparum isolates in South Darfur state, about twelve years after the official withdrawal of the drug as a treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria.

The role of Zakat Chamber in Reducing Poverty in Sudan within the period 2018- 2020 - A case Study of South Dar fur State

هدفت الدراسة إلى قياس دور ديوان الزكاة في التقليل من حدة الفقر في ولاية جنوب دارفور خلال الفترة (2018- 2020م)، وبيان أثر المشروعات الممنوحة للفقراء على دخولهم ومستوى معيشتهم. اتبعت الدراسة المنهج الوصفي التحليلي، واعتمدت على المصادر الأولية مستخدمة الاستبيان كأداة رئيسة لجمع بيانات مجتمع الدارسة الذي شمل الفقراء الذين حصلوا على مشروعات إنتاجية خلال فترة الدارسة. تم اختيار عينة عشوائية بسيطة بلغت (337) مفردة. لتحليل البيانات استخدمت الدراسة برنامج الحزم الإحصائية للعلوم الاجتماعية (SPSS). خلصت الدارسة إلي أن لديوان الزكاة دور كبير في التخفيف من حدة الفقر في الولاية، وذلك نظراً للانتشار الواسع له في تمليك وسائل الإنتاج للمستحقين. أكد تحليل اختبار مربع كاي عند مستوي دلالة 0.05 وجود علاقة إيجابية ذات دلالة إحصائية بين مشروعات ديوان الزكاة وزيادة دخل الفرد وتحسين مستوي المعيشة وانخفاض معدل البطالة في ولاية جنوب دارفور. أوصت الدارسة بإيلاء عنصر التدريب أهمية، وخاصة المستفيدين الذين تم تمليكهم المشروعات الإنتاجية في كيفية إدارتها.

A Case Report on Cyanidation of Gold Heap Tailings at Agbash Mine in South Darfur State (Sudan)

A Case Report on Cyanidation of Gold Heap Tailings at Agbash Mine in South Darfur State (Sudan)

Ethnobotanical Study on Some Tree Species Used as Bioenergy in South Darfur State, Sudan

This study provides ethnobotanical information on preferred local energy tree species based on biomass characteristics. The survey used a stratified sampling technique. The questionnaire covered different issues related to the consumers and biomass characteristics for energy utilization. The study computed use value, fidelity level, and factor informant consensus for the most frequently used energy tree species. According to the highest use values, respondents in the study area identified Acacia mellifera and Capparis decidua as the most vital energy tree species. Sustained combustion is the most desired property for brickmaking, while bakeries and homes prefer haste ignition. Further research and laboratory testing of tree characteristics of selected species in energy plantations and agroforestry programmes in Sudan could help confirm the study results.

Influence of rainwater harvesting practices on the sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) grain yields in the sub-tropical deserts of Sudan ​

Food security is climate dependent in the Darfur region, Sudan; ultimately, the extreme drought events have derailed the region into “the world’s first climate change conflict”. Most of the ongoing climate resilience efforts in the region depend on rainwater harvesting (RWH) practices. The objective of this study is to be better understanding of the variability in the performance of the adopted RWH practices in the Darfur region. Datasets of 148 farmers were collected during the year 2022 through a structured questionnaire in the South Darfur state and analyzed based on two different modeling frameworks in the R package: the deep machine learning (the Bagging algorithms) and the logit models. The dependent variable is the rainfed sorghum grain yield, and the independent variables were RWH practices, education level, family size, and distance to the farm. The standardized precipitation index (SPI) explained that every two years the region is experiencing a drought event (1980-2015), with an annual rainfall of 396 mm ± 100 mm. About 82% of farmers mainly adopted RWH for food security in face of the decreased rainfall. The adopted RWH practices (mainly terracing) have increased sorghum grain yields by 72% - 147%. The best grain yield is associated with spate irrigation, and the poorest with illiteracy. The large family size ( greater than 9 people) and good education level offset the negative impacts of both illiteracy and the longer distance to the farm. The terracing and terracing + mulching + deep tillage (as a single package) practices were the most laborious and unsustainable practices in the Darfur region, and are not recommended, especially when the farm distance is greater than 5 km

A Comparison Between Working and Nonworking Donkeys Welfare Issues in Nyala City, South Darfur, Sudan

In impoverished nations, donkeys help people make a living. The welfare of donkeys in Sudan is neglected compared with developed countries. However, there is no information available about donkey welfare in Nyala. This study aimed to assess the welfare of donkeys in Nyala. Donkeys were divided into two groups (n = 50), working and nonworking. The donkeys' physical, emotional, and clinical parameters and an owner's interview were assessed. There were significant differences in body condition scores: 37% and 47% of working and nonworking donkeys, respectively, had ideal body condition scores, while 13% of working donkeys were emaciated. Of the working and nonworking 33% and 19% had hoof problems, respectively. Fifteen percent of working donkeys had ocular discharge, and 25% had wounds. In working donkeys, 7% and 5% depressive and aggressive behavioral responses, respectively, were observed. Furthermore, there were significant differences in tools used for hitting donkeys, with 33% and 17% of owners using a stick and whip, respectively, for hitting working donkeys. Eighty-two percent of owners feed their donkeys one to three times daily (50% working and 32% nonworking donkeys), and free access feeding was only observed in 18% of nonworking donkeys. There were no significant differences (P > .06) in emotional parameters. We conclude that working donkeys suffer from multiple welfare problems more than nonworking donkeys in Nyala. More awareness, veterinary services, and research are needed to improve donkey care in Nyala.

Class, cash and control in the South Sudan and Darfur borderlands

ABSTRACT This article argues for a better understanding of the market foundations of ‘elite’ autocracy, and for a re-centring of the construction and exploitation of labour markets, in histories of economic and political power in South Sudan. Based on conversations with residents and migrant workers on the borders between north-western South Sudan and southern Darfur in Sudan over 2017 to 2019, it explores how cycles of wars, displacement, resettlement and reconstruction since the 1980s have rapidly monetised and commodified working lives, land and relationships. This has precipitated rapid class stratification, cash debt and worker exploitation, and sharp controls on the emerging cheap cash labour pool via border violence, wage depression, land alienation and rents, and the construction of a private educational market, which have all undercut older forms of collective work and mutuality. These changes have been encouraged and exploited by growing classes of private landowners, commercial farmers and military entrepreneurs, and been supported by the development and humanitarian system’s investment in market forces and individual self-reliance.

Dynamics of Identity Construction among the Ethnic Communities in Darfur: A Conflict-based Perspective

This paper investigates dynamics adopted by nine ethnolinguistic communities affected by the current conflict in South Darfur State to construct their ethnic identities. Qualitative data were obtained via focus group discussions, interviews, posters from the landscape, and observation over a period spanning from 2012 to 2013. The findings show that, firstly, there were unprecedented micro-interethnic identity construction dynamics across the study area. Secondly, within these interethnic identities, there were also emerging intra-ethnic identities – all spurred by the wholesale community ethnicisation processes. Thirdly, revitalization of ethnolinguistic identity was found to be the major tool employed by the communities under study, with varying degrees, to establish their distinct identities. Fourthly, ethnolinguistic identities constructed varied from one group to another, ranging from ‘strong’ to ‘moderate’ and ‘weak’, depending on the community’s ethnolinguistic vitality. The paper concluded that the major factor in the emergence of these micro inter- or intra-ethnic identities was the current conflict in Darfur.

Effect of Clipping Heights on Rangeland Yield, Productivity, Carrying Capacity and Utilization Check A Case study from the tropical savanna grassland, South Darfur, Sudan

A plot of one fed an (4200 m2 ), in a ranching system of the Southern Darfur savanna grassland – Gazala Gawazat, Animal and Range Research Station, was selected and fenced for artificial grazing experiment for a couple of seasons . The total forage mean yield (Kg/ha) at three different clipping heights (5cm, 15cm and 35cm) varied significantly (P < 0.05). The clipping,(harvesting) at a height of 5cm level produced a better harvest yield of forage for maintaining grazing animals at a certain grazing management system when applied. Higher forage yield (1588.68Kg/ha) and carrying capacity (211.82 AU/ha/d) for 5cm clipping height then followed by the 15 cm clipping height in terms of forage yield (641.18 Kg/ha) and carrying capacity (85.84 AU/ha/d).Based on the argument that cattle consumes about 2.5 Kgs DM /day/100Kg L.wt. On the other hand, 35 cm clipping height produced lower yield (488.56Kg/ha) and low carrying capacity (81.41 AU/ha/d), revealing that smaller number of grazing animals can be allowed to graze for shorter period. On average seasonal basis, season 2019 was much better than grazing season 2018 on 5cm clipping height in terms of forage yield (414.99Kg/ha & 390.17 Kg/ha ) respectively . As such, continual harvest with particular management system, gives more chance offered for grasses to regenerate vigorously to increase the total forage (harvest) yield, with the optimum allocation of grazing animals to utilize the range site. Accordingly, more animal’s units accommodated per unit area of that type of management.

Reduced Albendazole Efficacy in Goats Naturally Infected with Strongyle Nematodes in Dagrase Area, South Darfur State, Sudan

Reduced Albendazole Efficacy in Goats Naturally Infected with Strongyle Nematodes in Dagrase Area, South Darfur State, Sudan

Unequal geographic distribution of water and sanitation at the household and school level in Sudan.

The Sudanese Government launched the National SDG-6 Plan and commences its implementation to achieve and sustain universal and equitable access to basic WASH services by 2030. It is critical to understand the geographical heterogeneity of Sudan and patterns in the inequality of access to safe drinking water and sanitation. Through such research, the disease control strategy can be optimized, and resource allocation can be prioritized. We explored spatial heterogeneity and inequality in access to improved water and sanitation across Sudan by mapping the coverage at both the state and district levels. We decomposed the inequality across Sudan into within-state, between-state, within-district, and between-state inequalities using the Theil L and Theil T indices. We calculated the Gini coefficient to assess the inequality of access to improved water and sanitation, based on the deviation of the Lorenz curve from the line of perfect equality. The study population was 105,167 students aged 8–13 at 1,776 primary schools across the country. Geographical heterogeneity was prominent in the Central Darfur, South Darfur, East Darfur, Kassala, West Kordofan, and Blue Nile States, all of which showed severe inequality in access to an improved latrine at the household level in terms of the Theil T or Theil L index. The overall inequality in the coverage of improved sanitation went beyond the warning limit of 0.4 for the Gini coefficient. The inequality in terms of the Theil L and Theil T indices, as well as the Gini coefficient, was always higher for improved sanitation than for improved water at the household level. Within-state inequality accounted for 66% or more of national inequalities in the distribution of improved sanitation and drinking water for both the Theil L and Theil T indices. This is the first study to measure geographical heterogeneity and inequalities in improved water and sanitation coverage across Sudan. The study may help to prioritize resource allocation to areas with the greatest water and sanitation needs.

Prevalence of Internal Parasites Associated with Dairy Cattle in Nyala City, South Darfur State, Sudan

Prevalence of Internal Parasites Associated with Dairy Cattle in Nyala City, South Darfur State, Sudan

Sero-epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease in Darfur area, Western Sudan.

A total of 367 bovine sera positive to antibodies against non-structural proteins (NSPs) of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus were screened for serotype O, A and SAT2 antibodies using the virus neutralization test (VNT). Sera had been collected in 2016 from North (228) and South (139) Darfur States in Western Sudan, where high and low circulation of FMD virus, respectively, prevailed. Tested sera represented the positive-NSPs portion in a random sample of 669 sera collected from both States. According to standard statistical methods, calculations for serial testing (NSPs ELISA and VNT) were applied to estimate prevalence rates of serotype-specific antibodies in the two States. In each State, approximately 20% of NSPs positive sera failed typing. Prevalence's detected were 49% ± 5% (O), 27% ± 5% (A) and 14% ± 4% (SAT2) in North Darfur State and 27% ± 5% (O), 17% ± 4% (A) and 8.0% ± 3% (SAT2) in South Darfur State. In both States, prevalence rates were significantly higher for serotype O, followed by A then SAT2; the same order that was known in most parts of Sudan. Consistently, estimated prevalence's were statistically significantly higher (P < 0.05) in North Darfur than in South Darfur State. Apart from serotype SAT2, detected prevalence rates were lower or similar to those inside the country in previous occasions. Frequency and pattern of distribution of serotype O prevalence were consistent with its suggested pattern of circulation from the Nile valley to other parts in Sudan and significant within the country's circulation. Alternatively, serotype SAT2 prevalence and distribution in Darfur area were suggestive of sporadic occurrence. However, slightly higher prevalence rates of SAT2 antibodies in Darfur than in neighbouring Kordofan areas in 2013 reflected the wide dissemination of SAT2 ( http://www.wrlfmd.org ) in Sudan in early 2014. Risk of FMD in Darfur seemed to be associated with the movement of animals to the North in the wet season as part of the pastoral system, and with movement related to trade into urban centers more than with pastoralism across the Western borders. Generally, the result presented little evidence to suggest presence of FMD primary endemic foci in Darfur area.

Prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis among selected people in Tulus area, South Darfur State, Sudan

Background: Urinary schistosomiasis is a major public health issue in Sudan. The disease is endemic in many rural communities across the country.Methods: This is a cross-sectional study conducted to determine the prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis among selected individual in the city of Tulus, South Darfur state, Sudan. One hundred terminal urine samples were collected and examined for Schistosoma haematobium eggs using standard filtration technique.Results: A total of 100 individual were enrolled in the study with a mean (±SD) age of 17.7±0.73 years. Out of them, 62 (62%) were found to be infected with Schistosoma haematobium. The statistical analysis showed significant association with gender (p=0.043) with higher prevalence 70.9 % (39/55) in female than males 51.1 % (23/45). Majority of the S. haematobium infections were classified as intense infection (82%, 51/62) with egg count ≥50 eggs/10 ml urine, while gross haematuria was observed in 10% of urine samples.Conclusions: In conclusion, the prevalence of S. haematobium infection in the study participants was remarkably high. However, further studies, including large sample size will be essential to assess the burden of the disease in the study area.