South Arabia Research Articles

Britain’s Last Colonial War

Abstract The United Kingdom fought its last colonial war in South Arabia (1963 t0 1967) during a pivotal era of waning economic strength, rising Arab nationalism, and growing anticolonialism. Determined to retain Britain’s international status, the Macmillan government considered military facilities in Aden essential to projecting power east of Suez. This article argues that policy decisions taken from 1937 onwards increased the likelihood of a nationalist insurgency and made countering it at an acceptable cost extraordinarily difficult. The British never devised a comprehensive strategy, responding to threats on an ad hoc basis. Contrary to what some scholars insist, South Arabia neither confirmed the failure of the British approach nor heralded a new era of counterinsurgency. The conflict was a political failure, not a military defeat.

Seals from Ancient South Arabia: A Preliminary Analysis

Abstract There exists widespread evidence that the Near Eastern societies manufactured seals. However, among these, South Arabian seals remain largely neglected while performing various particularly revealing functions. For instance, the practice of sealing allowed for the explicit expression of ownership as well as the act of witnessing in legal matters. More broadly, seals were a means of articulating individual identities and reinforcing communal belonging. This paper is the first study on the seals of ancient South Arabia after the unpublished Ph.D. dissertation by Diana P. Wong (1999. “Stamp Seals of the Ancient Yemen.” Unpublished PhD diss., Berkely). It investigates a corpus comprising 85 published seals currently held in museums and private collections across three continents. After providing a brief survey of the region’s history, this article analyses the epigraphic and iconographic content carved on the corpus, offering some reflections on the typology and characteristics of the seals, as well as on the society of ancient South Arabia.

The History by Shanbal as the Earliest Specimen of the Historiography of Hadramawt

The historiographical tradition of Hadramawt, the autonomous historical and cultural region of South Arabia, began its formation in the IX/XV century. The works of Hadramawt historiography appeared in great numbers following “The History of Hadramawt” by Ahmad bin ‘Abdullah Shanbal. “The History of Hadramawt» belongs to the biographical genre of narrative characterized by a concise form of reporting. It was under the inϐluence of Muslim law and, to a lesser extent, theology, that the history of various branches of knowledge was compiled as a collection of biographies of authoritative ϐigures. Thus, the genre of biography in Arab-Muslim historiography became the most enduring of all forms of historical expression. Shanbal through the prism of biographies of ulems, fakikhs, qadis, rulers and commanders gave us the basis for constructing the history of medieval Hadramawt. This article identiϐies features of the Hadramawt historiographic tradition based on an analysis of the text of Ahmad bin ‘Abdullah Shanbal’s work. In compiling his chronicle, Shanbal apparently relied on Ba Hasan, Ba Shurahbil, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Khatib, Ba Makhrama, genealogies and family hagiologies of sayyids and mashayyih.

Thriving For Success: Hadhrami Entrepreneurs’ Establishment in Diaspora, Evidence from Malaysia

Arabs of Hadhramaut are a subethnic group indigenous to the Hadhramaut region in South Arabia’s eastern Yemeni province. They are renowned for their reputation as successful businesspeople in Arabic countries and Southeast Asia, including Indonesia and Malaysia. This study investigates and unfolds what factors contribute to the success of Hadhrami entrepreneurs and how they are firmly embedded and merged to create a vibrant and competitive business. A score of Hadhrami entrepreneurs in Kelantan, Johor, and Penang were interviewed to get valuable information on the aim of the study. According to the study’s results based on a thematic analysis, familial education and environment play a significant role in fostering interest and encouraging Hadhramis to be involved in business. This factor was bolstered by personality traits such as self-reliance, the ability to recognize opportunities, tenacity, and self-assurance, as well as religious factors such as faith in the provision of sustenance, adherence to spiritual values such as honesty, trust, and responsibility as a Muslim entrepreneur. As far as Hadhrami entrepreneurs were concerned, the study concluded that a nexus of family upbringing factors, the right personality, and strong religious beliefs are paramount for their success.

The Captive and the Hostage as Missionaries in Late Roman Tradition The Case of Pre-Islamic South Arabia

The Captive and the Hostage as Missionaries in Late Roman Tradition The Case of Pre-Islamic South Arabia

From the Aramaic raḥmānāʾ to raḥmānān and al-raḥmān

Abstract The oldest record of the notion of “mercy”, raḥmān, in Aramaic is known from a bilingual text in which the word is the translation of the Akkadian rēmēnû. The latter is used in Mesopotamian onomastics, hymns and prayers, which delivered the oldest formulae of calls for the mercy of gods, especially in a recurrent expression: “the merciful god, that is good to pray,” translated verbatim in the Aramaic text of the statue of Tell Fekheryeh. Almost a thousand years later, the same wording has been inherited unchanged in Palmyrene Aramaic. Nevertheless, the Palmyrene interest on the divine epithet raḥmān and its revival in Palmyrene epigraphy may be explained by the influence of the new Roman concept of clementia. Meanwhile, this contribution proposes to outline a chronology of the Aramaic inscriptions from Syria and Palestine, in which raḥmānāʾ is either the main substitute for the divine name, or a major divine epithet. As the Akkadian phonetic assimilates the consonant <ḥ> to the laryngeal <ʾ> but preserves the velar <ḫ>, the supposed East Semitic root was rḥm, not rḫm. On the contrary, in the Arabian Peninsula, the earliest attested root is rḫm, as evidenced by South Arabic onomastics or toponymy. A late use of rḥm in South Arabic as a verb or noun is the result of a loan from Aramaic and does not appear until the fifth century AD. The first South Arabian inscriptions naming the monotheistic god raḥmānn are preceded by the Palmyrene inscriptions by almost two centuries and are contemporary with the Jewish-Aramaic inscriptions in the Palestinian synagogues, which call the God Raḥmānāʾ. Late, the Aramaic epithet was transferred to the Arabic al-raḥmān, through South Arabian.

Pilgrimage in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Continuity and Rupture from Epigraphic Texts to the Qur’an

Abstract References to the pilgrimage in the Qur’an, called ḥajj and ʿumra, are often very brief, but recent studies have shown that most of what is gleaned from the Qur’an about the practice can find parallels in pilgrimages to other sites in Arabia. In this article, I read the Qur’anic data on ḥajj and ʿumra in the light of Arabian inscriptions that mention pilgrimage rituals. In particular, the annual pilgrimage to the Awām Temple in Ma’rib in South Arabia, about which we know a great deal, can shed light on the larger context of the ritual in pre-Islamic Arabia. I argue based on a discussion of Qur’anic and epigraphic materials that the ḥajj and ʿumra of the Qur’an share many elements with other Arabian pilgrimages, but the Qur’an clearly expresses discontent with certain practices of pre-Islamic pilgrimage such as ritual hunt while endorsing or approving others such as the procession between the hills of al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa. Most importantly, I contend that the Qur’an attempts to decouple pilgrimage and animal sacrifice especially due to the latter’s strong association with physical objects of veneration called awthān and nuṣub in the Qur’an.

Slavery in First Millennium Arabia: Epigraphy and the Qurʾān

Abstract It is commonly assumed that slavery was a widespread practice in pre-Islamic Arabia. This assumption is based on references to enslaved people in the Qurʾān. At the same time, it replicates biased accounts of the region’s inhabitants found in (mostly Graeco-Roman) “external” sources. Finally, the claim builds on the existence of “societies with slaves”' and “slave societies” in the surroundings of late antique Arabia. No thorough attempt to examine slavery in pre-Islamic Arabia has been carried out by engaging with the abundant epigraphical records. People in subordinate positions towards other men could carve inscriptions in bronze and leave them in temples (which were open to people of all stations), but it is unclear if these people should be considered “servants” or “enslaved people”. As such, it is impossible to tell if the people mentioned as ʿbd, for example, offered their services as servants or were obliged to do so and worked against their will as enslaved people. Prisoners and privileged guests at royal courts were often one and the same. The presence of captives in these inscriptions points to the fact that some people were bought or sold as personal property in the first millennium. As religious and secular practices overlapped in ancient times, bronze votive inscriptions should not be considered mere votive objects but as holding legal value with a profound ceremonial role in the correct functioning of the stratified society of pre-Islamic South Arabia. In continuity with pre-Islamic times, the Qur’ān regards servants as part of the master’s household and the community of the believers (Ummah): Islam was neither a rupture nor an alien product in the region.

Military Loyalty in Britain’s Withdrawal from Aden, 1960–1967

This article argues an understanding of the British withdrawal from Aden in 1967 requires greater attention to be paid to the loyalty of the local security forces who were supposed to help repress the insurgency in south Arabia, and then secure a friendly state when Britain left. The Federal Regular Army (FRA), the most important formation, proved to be consistently unreliable through behaviours ranging from the attempted murder of British personnel, to desertion and political activism. However, disbanding the FRA might have made matters even worse, so British officers sought to manipulate its loyalty through various mechanisms, including pay rises, ignoring disloyal incidents and directing propaganda at the soldiers. These endeavours succeeded in holding off a mutiny until June 1967, but only by creating a force which became infiltrated by the insurgent movements and lacked the capacity to play any meaningful role in defending the federation. This analysis suggests studies on British counter-insurgency should investigate further the role of local allies in strategy and operations.

Epenthesis and vowel intrusion in Central Dhofari Mehri

Abstract The paper discusses epenthesis and vowel intrusion in the Central Dhofari variety of Mehri, one of six endangered Modern South Arabian languages indigenous to southern Arabia. Mehri is spoken by members of the Mahrah tribe in southern Oman, eastern Yemen, parts of southern and eastern Saudi Arabia and in communities in parts of the Gulf and East Africa. The estimated number of Mehri speakers is between 100,000–180,000. Following Hall (2006), this study distinguishes between two types of inserted vowels: epenthetic vowels, which repair illicit syllable structures, and intrusive vowels, which transition between consonants. The paper examines how the properties of epenthetic and intrusive vowels as proposed by Hall relate to Mehri.

Ruʾūs al-Jibāl Arabic in Context: A Proposal for an Expanded Typology of Southeastern Arabian Dialects

Abstract This paper seeks to clearly outline the features that distinguish Ruʾūs al-Jibāl Arabic (also called Šiḥḥī Arabic, Musandam Arabic) spoken on the Omani peninsula from surrounding dialects. Comparison with nearby Arabic varieties yields a few areal features (in segmental phonology) that establish a dialect continuum from the coasts of northern Oman to Musandam. A large number of phonological similarities between Ruʾūs al-Jibāl Arabic and Dhofari Arabic are then documented here for the first time. This robust but discontinuous link re-frames many of the peculiarities of Ruʾūs al-Jibāl Arabic as vestiges of a coastal southern Arabian dialect group. This finding fits a wellknown ancient pattern of northward population movements out of south Arabia, and allows for a more effective delineation of innovations unique to Ruʾūs al-Jibāl . It also offers a direction forward for an expanded framework for the classification of the Arabic dialects of southeastern Arabia, incorporating Oman's peripheries at Dhofar and Musandam.

Two Safaitic Inscriptions in Comparison to Geographical and Historical Sources about the Arabian Expedition of Aelius Gallus

The aim of this work is to analyse the critical cruces about some geographical locations in reference to the western coast and the inland parts of the South Arabian and Nabataean area. In detail, the purpose of this research is to investigate the probable location of the port of Leuke Kome through a comparison between an epigraphic source written in Safaitic and some indication in Strabo’s account of the expedition of Aelius Gallus to Arabia Felix. In addition, a new reading of another Safaitic inscription mentioning a curious S1ly (Silleus?) could help to better understand some details of the Roman Arabian campaign too.

Minaeans in the Mediterranean. Reevaluating two Old South Arabian inscriptions from Delos

AbstractTwo well‐known texts on altars from Delos (RES 3952; M 349) dating to the period after 167 BC attest to contacts between the Aegean and Ancient Yemen. Reexamining these two important inscriptions, this article argues that both were set up by Minaeans. As for the altar bearing inscription M 349, we interpret the Greek inscriptions as later additions, the purpose of which was to inform readers who were unfamiliar with the Old South Arabian script of the deity venerated.

Incense from Sheba for the Jerusalem Temple

In Eilat Mazar’s excavations in the Ophel in Jerusalem, a partially preserved inscription engraved on the shoulder of a pithos was found in 2012 in a context dated to the 10th century BCE. Although close to a dozen interpretations of the inscription have been offered over time, its reading remains highly disputed. All of these interpretations consider the script to be Canaanite. In this study, it is argued that the inscription was engraved in the Ancient South Arabian script and that its language is Sabaean. The inscription reads “ ]šy ladanum 5.” The aromatic ladanum (Cistus ladaniferus), rendered as lḏn in the inscription, is most probably שׁ ְ חֵ לֶ ת (šǝḥēlet), the second component of incense according to Exod 30:34. The inscription was engraved before the locally made vessel was fired, leading to the conclusion that a Sabaean functionary entrusted with aromatic components of incense was active in Jerusalem by the time of King Solomon.

Recognition and Translation of Ancient South Arabian Musnad Inscriptions

Recognition and Translation of Ancient South Arabian Musnad Inscriptions

Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700–950)

Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700–950)

The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity, Yahweh before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name and Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God

The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity, Yahweh before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name and Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God

Trade, Kingdom, and Empire: Edom and the South Arabian Trade

AbstractDuring the first millennium BCE, extensive trade networks linked the South Arabian and Mediterranean worlds. While these trade networks are well known for their transport of highly lucrative materials, these connections afforded myriad economic and diplomatic opportunities for the intermediaries located along its routes, and held significant bearing on the political economies of southern Levantine kingdoms. While the wealth and opportunity afforded by the Arabian trade to these kingdoms are frequently invoked—particularly in relation to Edom—such references, and related discussions of the Arabian trade, are often restricted in their chronological scope and reliant on limited data. Recent scholarship on Edom, however, has substantially contributed to a more detailed understanding of settlement trajectories and shifts in sociopolitical organization, which, combined with recent archaeological research on varied aspects of the Arabian trade, necessitate an expanded synthesis of the trajectory of this trade and its relation to Edom. This work thus presents first an outline of the diachronic trajectory of the Arabian trade in relation to the southern Levant using textual and material culture data, and second, analyzes it within the context of sociopolitical developments in the late Iron Age kingdom of Edom. Ultimately, this work argues for a close association between the flourishing of long-distance trade in the southern Levant and the presence of sedentary sociopolitical complexity in southern Transjordan, as evident in the kingdoms of Edom and later Nabataea.

Tribal ties around the cooking fire in South Arabia: Some ethnographic lexical notes

AbstractThis paper reflects on some Arabic terms, previously noted by scholars, of small‐scale monument types, which have a symbolic and semantic conflation of ‘cooking fire’ and ‘permanent occupation’, such as raḍfa, jamara, ʾaṯfiya and rabaʿa. The paper discusses more terms that confirm this conflation and widen it to include the concept of tribal protection, as a parallel with the pre‐Islamic practice of the ‘fire of alliance’, described by classical Muslim writers and alluded to in Ancient South Arabian inscriptions. The association of fire terminology with tribal protection concepts appears to be related to the idea of food‐sharing alliances.

Reconsidering the Earliest Synagogue in Yemen

This article reexamines the evidence underlying the widely cited identification of a late ancient synagogue in Qanīʾ (modern Biʾr ʿAlī, Yemen), challenging its identification and the historical narrative built around it. We first assess the epigraphic, archaeological, and literary evidence used to identify a synagogue, and therefore a community of Jews, in fourth- through sixth-century Ḥimyar. We suggest that none of the evidence can bear the weight of the identification. We then discuss the reception of this tenuous claim by a wide variety of scholars—including those who have questioned its underlying rationale—and the way that it has been used to buttress wishful claims about an early and powerful Jewish presence in South Arabia. Ultimately, the mirage of Qanīʾ’s Jews serves as a cautionary tale, illustrating how surprising conclusions that bolster exciting historical narratives can result in speedy and unanimous acceptance by scholars of interpretations deserving of skepticism.