Coal In South Africa Research Articles

The regional implications of just transition in the world's most coal-dependent economy: The case of Mpumalanga, South Africa

IntroductionSouth Africa has had an extraordinarily heavy reliance on coal to fuel its economy, and it is one of the highest carbon dioxide emitters per capita globally. Current moves aligned with COP26 and recently announced Western support for a Just Transition Partnership to support decarbonisation in South Africa and replace coal fired power stations with renewables are to be welcomed. That said, the majority of South Africa's coal mines, thermal power stations and the currently important coal export industry are located in Mpumalanga's Coal-Belt, an area which has and will continue to experience significant social and economic trauma as mines close and workers needs to be reskilled. There are currently over 100,000 workers in the coal and related industries in this region.MethodsThis paper draws on international and South African evidence of the effects and responses to mine closure, regional resilience theory and evolutionary economic geography theory to analyse the implications and prospects for economic renewal as the coal industry winds down. Evidence is sourced form secondary material including government and industry policy statements and media articles, while primary material was sourced from key informant interviews.ResultsTransitioning this region of South Africa from its virtual mono-economy based on coal presents challenges which this paper highlights. While support from international sources to help make this transition into renewables will be of considerable benefit, significant challenges need to be addressed to ensure that difficulties are overcome, and the risks of the resource curse experienced in many developing countries are minimized.DiscussionProcesses may need to be put in place to ensure that the ambitious goal of transitioning from coal to renewables can be achieved, finances and management well-targeted, and a sense of security given to outside investors to help fund the transition, but also broader economic diversification. In parallel to ensure the “transition is just” mechanisms also need to be put in place, by the state and the investors, to ensure that those citizens unable to transition are empowered and engaged in their community to stem the risk of the inevitable frustration and social disturbance that exclusion from the economy and living with declining services creates. Whom should be putting these processes into place also needs consideration given that existing organizations are already struggling. Though not an easy task, it is hoped that this paper sheds some light on the various issues and encourages consideration of the ways to address them.

Climate, violence, resource extraction and ecological debt: global implications of an assassination on South Africa's coal mining belt

ABSTRACT Extractivism has attracted inspiring resistance in South Africa, but far-reaching lessons from one site of struggle in KwaZulu-Natal Province are sobering. The October 2020 assassination of Fikile Ntshangase, an anti-coal activist, reflects difficult political-economic and political-ecological terrain. The critical role of gendered activism in former apartheid-era Bantustans underlay concrete problems Ntshangase faced when confronted by male coal-mine labourers. There was no ‘Just Transition’ programme to decarbonize the mine at the time. The corporation that benefited from the assassination, Petmin, was expanding into Ntshangase's village. In the process, not only did the need to cease coal mining become of enormous global concern, but Petmin’s role in international circuits of capital also gave rise to a new round of global-local and socio-ecological linkages. Some involve the World Bank while others entail solidarity with victims of the same firm near the United States city of Cleveland.

Microwave-Assisted Synthesis and Characterization of Zeolite Prepared From South Africa Coal Fly Ash

In industry, synthetic zeolites are commonly used as ion-exchange materials, catalyst supports, and adsorbents. As a result, a more energy-efficient alternative for its synthesis from low-cost and accessible raw materials is needed. This study, presents the possibility of using class F South African coal fly ash (SACFA) from Lethaba thermal-power station as a precursor to produce zeolites via a microwave (MW) assisted synthesis route. The mineral content of synthetic materials was determined using X-ray florescence (XRF). Morphology was determined using a Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), elemental composition by energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). X-ray diffractometry (XRD) was used to get structural characterization. Microwave (MW) irradiation time and intensity enhance the crystallization of the zeolite phase as a result of sufficient energy required to enable the solubility of alumina and silica from coal fly ash. The use of MW irradiation provides a green alternative to zeolite synthesis from fly ash (FA) than traditional thermal and fusion techniques, which uses a great deal of energy consumption and a longer reaction time.

Are pit lakes an environmentally sustainable closure option for opencast coal mines?

The aim of the study is to determine if pit lakes are a sustainable coal mine closure option in South African. The water balance, chemistry, limnology, and bacterial population of three selected pit lakes were investigated. The lakes are in the three major coal basins of South Africa and are associated with different lithologies and mining methods. The major factors driving the water balance of the pit lakes are direct rainfall, runoff, inflow from old mine workings, and groundwater infiltration, with the major losses being evaporation or discharge onto surface. The study indicated that pit lakes can be designed as 'terminal sinks' to provide a sustainable mine closure option. The pit lakes sampled have an alkaline pH, and mostly a sodium/calcium sulphate water with total dissolved solids content of less than 3000 mg/l. The phytoplankton and microbiological data indicates that the pit lakes support aquatic life. The study shows that correctly designed pit lakes can be an environmentally sustainable closure option for South Africa's coal mines. A suggested design manual has been developed to assist mine owners and regulators in developing sustainable coal mine pit lakes as a closure option.

Preparation and characterization of ceramic composites from South Africa coal discard

The mining and processing of coal are accompanied by the accumulation of a substantial volume of discard that threatens the environment. Also, the continuous harvesting of natural resources such as clay to produce building materials is not environmentally sustainable. In this study, various South Africa coal discard was blended with a polysiloxane preceramic polymer resin and thereafter pyrolyzed to produce coal/ceramic composites. The physicomechanical properties of the composites were evaluated using various ASTM standard test methods. The thermal stability, mineralogy, and functional group properties of the raw materials and the composites were checked using TGA, XRD, and FTIR respectively. The results suggest that carbonyl functional groups and hydrogen bond in the coal discard promoted bonding with the preceramic polymer, therby improving the physicomechanical properties of the composites. XRD results showed that the total intensity of the diffraction peaks in the coals discards declined after pyrolysis of the blend of coal discard and the preceramic polymer. This suggests the amorphization of the crystalline phases in the coal discards. The developed composites displayed water absorption and flexural strength as low as 1.94–10.1% and 27.51–36.46 MPa respectively. The remarkable mechanical properties of the composites suggest that the coal composites produced in this study could be applicable in the construction industry. However, more tests like impact strength, thermal conductivity, etc. are required to fully characterize the properties of the coal composites.

Natural gas storage properties of adsorbents synthesised from three different coal waste in South Africa

Adsorbed natural gas (ANG) storage has been identified as the most promising low-pressure alternative to storing natural gas. However, in addition to the thermal management of the system, successful implementation of this technology is largely constrained by the cost of adsorbents. The usefulness and cost of suitable adsorbent such as activated carbon are essential to ANG technology's productivity. In this study, activated carbons were prepared from three South Africa coal waste samples (run-of-mine fines, discard and flotation slurry) by KOH activation. The adsorption isotherm of methane on the synthesized activated carbons revealed that the activated carbon synthesized from run of mine fines (ACR) has the highest adsorbed amount compared to activated carbons synthesized from coal discard (ACD) and slurry (ACS). The maximum adsorbed amount of methane was attained at an average pressure of 37 bar with ACR having the largest volume of methane adsorbed at 162.71 cm3/g followed by ACD (157.58 cm3/g) and ACS (106.69 cm3/g) respectively. This sequence is consistent with the BET surface areas of the activated carbons; ACR (1925.34 m2/g) > ACD (1826.41 m2/g) > ACS (1484.96 m2/g). The methane adsorption data were validated with Langmuir, Toth, and D-A isotherm models for the three activated carbons. It was found that, for all three activated carbons, the D-A model was the best fit. Based on the requirements of suitable porous materials for ANG application, the study indicated that the produced activated carbons from South Africa coal wastes could well be used for natural gas storage.

Effect of Particle Size on Biogas Generation from Sugarcane Bagasse and Corn Silage

In this study, the effect of particle size on sugarcane bagasse (SB) and corn silage (CS) with industrial wastewater for biogas production were investigated at a mesophilic temperature of 35 °C. Biogas, a renewable source of energy could serve as an alternative means to replace the use of non-renewables such as coal in South Africa. It has been found that the speed and stability of the anaerobic digestion process depends mainly on the particle size of the input material. Variations in particle sizes for both SB and CS were observed at 2 mm, 1 mm, 0.6 mm and 0.4 mm whiles the hydraulic retention time, the organic loading rate and the pH of the biodigesters were kept constant at 20 d, 0.5 gVS/100 mL and 6.5 - 8.0. 1 L biodigesters controlled in batch mode were used in this study leaving a 200 mL headspace followed by nitrogen purging to create the anaerobic environment. Highest biogas yield of 125 mL/d was observed from CS at a particle size of 0.4 mm. The result showed that smaller particle size distribution favours the biogas production of CS compared to SB.

Characteristics of the Solid Fuels for the Plasma Gasification

In this study, characteristics of 6 different fuels which are going to be gasified in a plasma reactor are analyzed. The types of fuels are Russian coal, South Africa coal, Sırnak-Turkey coal, hornbeam sawdust, pine tree sawdust and polyethylene. The characteristics of these fuels are examined by measuring heating values, densities and performing the proximate and ultimate analysis on their composition. The carbon and hydrogen content have a favorable influence on heating value meanwhile, moisture, ash, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur have an adverse effect. This fact is also confirmed by proximate and ultimate analysis. According to the results it is observed that the Russian and South Africa coals have the higher heating values because of their high carbon and hydrogen content. Meanwhile the moisture and volatile matter which are high in sawdust is the cause of reduction in heating values. Polyethylene has the highest heating value in calculation, although it could not be measured directly by a bomb calorimeter.

Development and implementation of spin to stall resin at Anglo Americans Australian underground coal operations

Longwall mining is by far the most common method of underground coal extraction in Australia. The industry trends and expectations are placing increasing emphasis on the reliability and productivity of these operations. The longwalls are becoming wider and longer while retreat rates are continuously increasing due to significant improvements achieved in longwall equipment reliability and automation. This increased longwall productivity is placing significant emphasis on the reliability of longwall panel development. Although there have been significant improvements in the reliability of continuous miners and hydraulic drill rigs, the traditional resin encapsulated bolt installation is still the principal method used in all major coal-producing countries around the world. Anglo American realised an opportunity existed to introduce an alternative roof bolt installation technique called “spin to stall” in Australia. Spin to stall was first introduced in Anglo American Coal in South Africa where it has been successfully used for over a decade, though implementation of South African spin to stall resin in Australia has proven to be near impossible due to a significant difference in geotechnical conditions, mining method, and, subsequently, roof bolting equipment. Therefore, a new spin to stall development project was initiated between Anglo American Coal and Jennmar Australia (SPIN2STALL®). This paper summarises the journey of this project, the results, and the successful implementation of spin to stall achieved at Grasstree Mine.

An innovative microwave-assisted digestion method with diluted hydrogen peroxide for rapid extraction of trace elements in coal samples followed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry

The present work describes the development of a novel and efficient microwave-assisted digestion method based on the use of diluted hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for rapid extraction of trace elements in coal samples prior to inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) determination. Diluted H2O2 was used to reduce acid wastes generated in analytical laboratories. After H2O2 digestion, the addition of diluted nitric acid was required to enhance the extraction of trace elements. Key parameters that affected the extraction efficiencies of the target analytes were examined using coal certified reference material (SARM 20). Improved digestion efficiency and quantitative trace element recoveries were obtained when 7molL−1, 200°C, 0.1g and 10min were used for [HNO3], temperature, coal amount and time, respectively. Agreement of 92–114% between the obtained results and the certified values was observed under the optimum conditions for most of the investigated trace elements in all three certified reference materials (SARMs 18, 19 & 20). Moderate extraction efficiencies (70–89%) were achieved for Sc, V, Cr, Y, and La, while Ti and Hf showed poor accuracy (10–50%). The use of H2O2 as the only digestion reagent resulted in colourless digest solutions with 0.084molL−1 of nitric acid. The diluted acid might have caused low method detection limits (MDLs) of 0.003–3.5μgg−1 and method quantification limits (MQLs) of 0.01–12.5μgg−1 for the current study due to less spectrometric interferences. These interferences are commonly caused by concentrated acids frequently used in classic acid digestion methods. The proposed microwave-assisted digestion method was comparable with literature reports and was successfully applied for trace element analysis in three South Africa coal samples.

Towards Energy Sustainability in South Africa

Coal is one of the three fossil fuels which are the main source of energy in the world. The other fossil fuels are crude oil and natural gas. Coal exists in situ in a number of countries and it contributes 39% of the total electricity generation in the world. In South Africa coal is the primary source of energy producing the country’s 88% of electricity and a third of liquid fuels. The coal production in the world is geared to maintain the energy supply even with the rising energy demand and cost emanating from rising global population and industrialisation. Hence, the need for sustainable energy supply for the present and the future. The global phenomenon of climate change or global warming which emerged in the early 1990s blames the weather pattern change partly to human development using non-renewable energy (fossil fuels) that provide high carbon emissions into the atmosphere. As a result, United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNCCC) was formed to lead the global campaign for the development of cleaner energy (producing less carbon emissions) and intensifying the use of renewable energy sources (produce cleaner energy) in an effort to slow down the climate change. During the last quarter of 2013 scientists reached a consensus by providing a 95% proof that carbon emissions into the atmosphere contribute significantly to the climate change. Therefore, the pursuance of energy sustainability is in development of clean energy from renewable sources and the use of technologies that reduces carbon emissions from the existing sources. The United Nations require all the nations in the world to adapt to the energy sustainability initiative. The South African government has reciprocated by introducing legislations supporting the initiative and has provided funds in support of projects involved in energy saving and development of renewable sources of energy. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n27p1686

Characteristics and synergistic effects of co-firing of coal and carbonaceous wastes

Co-firing has become a general practice in conventional pf power plants in western countries nowadays. Knowledge on ignition behaviours, combustion characteristic and possible synergistic effects when coal is co-fired with carbonaceous wastes is of importance to operators in terms of selecting the right coal substitutes for co-firing to prevent problems such as mill fires, to maintain good flame stability, and to achieve targeted emission levels. In this study, a Spanish coal and a South Africa coal were blended with four types of carbonaceous wastes at three different mass fractions. The change in ignition behaviour after blending together with overall combustion characteristics was studied using thermogravimetric analysis. Results showed lowered ignition temperatures at higher blending fraction levels. The decreases in both peak temperatures and burnout temperatures are significant regardless of the type and the amount of carbonaceous wastes being blended in the fuel mixture. These lowered characteristic temperatures would normally result in improved overall combustion performance in utility boilers. Moreover, significant changes in burning profiles of coal blended with the same carbonaceous wastes in different mass fractions (especially those for Tyre Scraps) suggest notable synergistic effects during co-firing.

Global Coal Demand, South Africa's Coal Industry and the Richards Bay Coal Terminal

ABSTRACTThis article examines the importance of resource-based development and exploitation in a developing country, with a specific focus on the coal industry in South Africa. Changes in global coal supply and demand provide the broad context, as do details about the loss of mining operations in once prosperous coalfields around the world. The history of the coal industry in South Africa and its importance both nationally and globally is detailed. A key focus of this article is on the strategically important Richards Bay harbour and its dedicated coal terminal. Technical details about the terminal are provided and its local impact is considered.

Global Coal Demand, South Africa's Coal Industry and the Richards Bay Coal Terminal

ABSTRACT This article examines the importance of resource-based development and exploitation in a developing country, with a specific focus on the coal industry in South Africa. Changes in global coal supply and demand provide the broad context, as do details about the loss of mining operations in once prosperous coal-fields around the world. The history of the coal industry in South Africa and its importance both nationally and globally is detailed. A key focus of this article is on the strategically important Richards Bay barbour and its dedicated coal terminal. Technical details about the terminal are provided and its local impact is considered.

The dividends from a revenue neutral tax on coal in South Africa

South Africa is endowed with a significant proportion of the worlds coal reserves, which is used relatively cheaply to supply in more than 75 per cent of the country's energy needs. In terms of its per capita South Africa is one of the largest air polluters in the world. Even higher on the list of social preferences in South Africa, however, is the problem of unemployment, which also ranks amongst the highest in the world. In this paper we use a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model to simulate fiscal policy scenarios that address both these problems, and try to establish a double dividend, namely a reduction in CO2 levels of pollution as well as a reduction in unemployment levels.

Combustion and NO x emission behavior of Chinese coals : Chen, H. and Xie, K. Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2002, 10, (3), 333–338

Seven Chinese coals ranking from anthracite to sub-bituminous from the Shanxi province were selected for study to forecast the combustion and NOx emission behavior.Three UK,one Indonesia and one South Africa coal was included in the study for reference.A flat flame-turbulent jet apparatus was employed to assess flame stability,ignition performance and NOx emission behavior for the initial stage of devolatilization and combustion. This apparatus can simulate particle heating rates,maximum temperatures and the influence of the turbulent fluid interactionson the fate of volatiles.To simulate processes occurring over longer residence time, additional devolatilization experiments were performed in a drop tube furnace.Char reactivity was studied through thermogravimetric analysis.Finally,fouling propensity was studied with the aid of a purpose-built laboratory combustor that enabled the characteristics of the ash deposit to be assessed empirically.The results show that Chinese coals do not appear to possess unusual features in respect of NOx formation,flame stability and ignition,char burnout and ash slagging.The range of coals available in China appears sufficiently broad that suits all requirements.In particular,Shenfu coal,with its initial fast devolatilization and nitrogen release rates and its low initial nitrogen content and high char reactivity,will perform well when fired in industrial boilers as far as NOx emission,flame stability and combustion efficiency are concerned.Pingshuo coal exhibits high char reactivity and an attractive slagging performance suggesting that this fuel represents a good compromise between NOx emission and overall plant efficiency.

The development and application of electronic technology to increase health, safety, and productivity in the South African coal mining industry

South Africa's coal mining industry is of vital economic importance. This paper describes some of the major electronic achievements within that industry over the past ten to 15 years. Basic design criteria formulated for systems to be used underground is discussed. The experience gained with the implementation of the systems, especially the human factor, is examined. Future directions to be followed by some of the research programs are presented.

Coal in South Africa

South Africa has more than 70 per cent of the coal resources of Africa, and coal forms the back-bone of the South African industry. In terms of the norms generally accepted for the Carboniferous coals of the Northern Hemisphere, South African coal has long been regarded as “abnormal”. However, these apparent abnormalities can be adequately explained in terms of the petrography which in turn reflects the conditions of peat formation and the subsequent metamorphism under a steep palaeogeothermal gradient. In common with other Gondwana coals South African coals are generally rich in material transitional between vitrinite and inertinite ( sensu stricto). This transition material is partly reactive during technological processes like carbonisation, and is therefore regarded as semi-reactive. South African coals are generally low in sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus, and in the case of the first two the contents are dependent on maceral composition and rank. On account of the low basisity of the coal ash the ash fusion temperatures are generally high and this is an advantage in most areas of coal utilisation. A review is given of adverse geological conditions affecting coal exploitation, and of methods that can possibly be used to recognise and predict of even eliminate these conditions for purposes of mine planning.

Democracy, rationality and advanced technologies: the case against nuclear power in South Africa

ABSTRACT It is argued that certain inherent characteristics of nuclear power undermine the public accountability of decision makers. In such circumstances there is a strong case for requiring that public policy decisions meet clearly defined criteria for rationality. A large part of this article examines the conventional criteria, concludes that they are inappropriate to nuclear technology and that special rules need to be applied. It is demonstrated that by these standards, nuclear power is both irrational and poses a distinctive threat to liberal democratic principles in South Africa. Nuclear power has been mooted as the answer to South (and indeed Southern) Africa's long‐term electricity requirements. Nuclear power, it is argued, will become necessary as South Africa's coal reserves are depleted and fossil‐fuel power becomes prohibitively expensive. [Huntley et al, 1989:67; McRae, 1989:58; Auf der Heyde et al, 1987:488] A nuclear programme seems easy to set in motion: South Africa is already a major producer of uranium; and much of the nuclear fuel chain already exists. However nuclear power is controversial. Worldwide, there is increasing awareness of both its adverse environmental implications and its costliness. There are also other issues which demand careful consideration. Public policy decisions (such as the decision to launch a nuclear power programme) must take account of clearly identified standards of accountability and rationality. Advanced technologies like nuclear power pose distinctive problems here. These will be discussed below with specific reference to the nuclear option in South Africa.

Book reviews

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