South African National Defence Force Research Articles

Intelligence Collection Disciplines—A Systematic Review

Intelligence collection is an integral part of the intelligence cycle. In fact, some authors declare that it is at the heart of the intelligence discipline. Intelligence collection is typically done by a variety of intelligence collection disciplines and is as old as the Bible. In the past, intelligence collection consisted mainly of human intelligence (HUMINT). However, as technologies evolved, so too did collection methods, and the number of collection disciplines, therefore, increased substantially. Some of these intelligence collection disciplines also underwent some significant modifications because of these technological advances. An example of this is Image Intelligence (IMINT) which was previously seen as a collection discipline on its own. IMINT is nowadays considered a subdiscipline under Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT)—the addition of geographical information systems (GIS) in the 1980s is one of the reasons for this change. These and many other changes resulted in many authors not agreeing on the main disciplines (and subdisciplines) in the intelligence collection domain. Furthermore, different organizations may only perform certain intelligence collection tasks and therefore only consider a certain spectrum of the intelligence collection domain. In 2021, the South African National Defence Force started a new degree programme in Defence Intelligence Studies under the auspices of the Faculty of Military Science, Stellenbosch University. It was, therefore, necessary to first establish what is globally considered the main intelligence collection disciplines and subdisciplines and secondly, which of these must be included when presenting intelligence collection as part of the degree programme in South Africa. The research entailed a two-phased approach, the first part entailed the PRISMA model to find relevant material that was analyzed with ATLAS.ti software during the second phase. The research is interesting since it suggests an expansion of the traditional list of intelligence collection disciplines by adding newer intelligence collection disciplines such as Social Media Intelligence (SOCMINT) and Cyber Intelligence (CYBINT). These additions can also be applied to other educational institutions offering intelligence studies elsewhere in the world.

Conceptualising a research interrogating of management functions in the South African National Defence Force

South African Defence Review 2015 found that the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) is in significant decline and will lose important military capabilities in the long term if nothing is done. In a shrinking defense budget, general rhetoric blames aging equipment and staff for the decline. However, managerial issues in the SANDF may be to blame for the decline. We examined academic and other literature to find the origin of this problem and found that the SANDF does not use any systems management methodology to manage tasks. This peculiarity hinders SANDF management and prevents it from providing credible defense to South Africa. We found that empirical studies on SANDF management are scarce and failed to explain this oddity. To understand why the SANDF's application inherent management functions fail to provide a genuine defense capacity, this paper proposes a cognitive technique to conceptualize an empirical investigation beyond a literature review. We propose a systems management approach based on the Administrative Theory of Management, Neoclassical Theory of Management, and General Systems Theory frameworks in management education. We believe that empirical public and management research may create defence capabilities management understanding. This premise guides our study conceptualization by outlining the research context and then doing a research problem analysis to find the knowledge gap. To examine the literature, we use thematic summative content analysis. The research conceptualisation—problem statement, purpose statement, research questions, strategy, design, process, and methods, and interpretative frameworks—is based on this analysis. On the latter, we expect to write later.

Institutional Culture and The Military: A Narrative of Women’s Experiences in The South African National Defence Force: The Case of Limpopo Province, South Africa

Institutional Culture and The Military: A Narrative of Women’s Experiences in The South African National Defence Force: The Case of Limpopo Province, South Africa

Challenges faced by women military officers in the South African National Defence Force: A case study of the Hoedspruit Air Force Base, Limpopo

abstract The military has a deep-rooted masculine culture. One of the aspects of this masculinity, which is hegemonic in its cultural dominance, is the perspective on and perception of femininity. The masculine behaviour resents the weak; therefore, soldiers are trained not to complain or project any feminine traits, such as being caring and nurturing, or displaying ‘softness’). Soldiers need to be able to do without emotions like empathy or showing emotions of regret in order to be able to function appropriately as soldiers. Feminine attributes are looked upon as ‘weak’ or ‘soft’. For instance, attributes such as sensitivity and compassion are deemed to be in contrast to the military culture. This article aims to elucidate the challenges faced by women military officers in the South African National Defence Force in Limpopo Province. It does so by applying the liberal feminist theory. The researcher used feminist qualitative research methods and an exploratory research design, with snowball sampling used to identify 15 female officers for in-depth interviews (6 women) and a focus group discussion (9 women). Thematic analysis was used for data analysis. The findings revealed that women military officers face challenges such as gendered discrimination, racial discrimination, vigorous basic military training, and exclusion from participation in decision making. There is still much need for improvement when it comes to addressing the challenges faced by women in the military.

Women Representation in the Military: The Case of the South African National Defence Force, Limpopo Province

Promoting gender equality and women empowerment is a long standing item on the development agenda nationally and internationally. It is also item number five of the 2030 millennium development goals; gender equality, ending all discrimination against women and girls is not only a basic right but a human right. Research has proven that empowering women and girls helps economic growth and development. Empowering women is necessary for women’s enhancement in society and the workplace, the military is no exception. This paper argues on the gender mainstreaming policies in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) and whether they are adequately implemented to ensure equal representation of women in all military ranks including combat. The researchers used Liberal Feminist Theory (LFT), which advocates for women’s right to be seen and acknowledged as human rights. The researchers employed a feminist qualitative research methodology and exploratory design. Snowballing sampling technique was used to select participants in the SANDF military air-force base in Hoedspruit, Limpopo and saturation was reached after the fifteenth participant for in-depth interviews. Data was analysed using Thematic Analysis (TA). Findings in the study revealed that women in the military are of the view that the military is making strides in ensuring an equal representation between men and women, however women view themselves as less represented than their male counterparts, regardless of the policies put in place. Results also revealed that that the lack of representation of women in the military is due to the SANDF not being meant for women. The paper therefore concludes that women are not equally represented to their male counterparts in the military and that there is need for improvement towards this in senior and management positions within the SANDF. The study recommends that the SANDF as a government institution could also create a sense of urgency to all the units in the quest to ensure equal representation of women. Creating a sense of urgency not only will ensure that more women can be part of the military, but will also create an awareness of the necessity for women to join the army.

Guerrillas and Combative Mothers: Women and the Armed Struggle in South Africa

Siphokazi Magadla's Guerrillas and Combative Mothers rests on 40 life histories of women who joined armed struggles of many kinds to fight apartheid. The book is a result of her doctorate which in turn rests on work she did while being a research consultant at the Institute for Security Studies. In 2010, on the tenth anniversary of the United Nations' (UN's) adoption of Resolution 1325, Magadla and Chery Hendricks produced the documentary Women and Security Sector Transformation in South Africa (2010). Magadla interviewed Major General Ntsiki Memela-Motumi, then chief director of transformation management in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF); Thandi Modise, a previous chair of the Portfolio Committee on Defence in the National Assembly and; Mala Singh, former deputy national commissioner of the South African Police Service (SAPS). Memela-Motumi and Modise are both former combatants in Umkhonto weSizwe (MK). They provided rich accounts of how their experiences as women in MK informed their later roles in transforming the SANDF. However, the study also has a prior genesis in Magadla's own experience of being the daughter of a soldier in the Transkei Defence Force. He ended his military career at 40 after that force was integrated into the SANDF. Her mother, a psychiatric nurse, also made her aware of the unstable mental conditions of many soldiers who were demobilised from the various armed forces in the period around 1994. This personal knowledge plus the experience of working with the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) gives the impetus for an important study. It is a study arising out of the complicated and turbulent moment in time when seven armies were integrated. These seven armies include the South African Defence Force (SADF), MK, the Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) and the four 'homeland' armies. This was a period in which those who had chosen to fight apartheid were faced with the question of whether they were career soldiers or not; and whether a return to civilian life was possible now that there was no longer a war.

Ramifications of the lockdown on community police relations during the Covid-19 pandemic in South Africa

Societies` views concerning the Criminal Justice System institutions are shaped not only by opportunities to interact with such institutions during normal work but also in part by efforts due to the larger mission (of these institutions) of encouraging and supporting such attitudes. Due to the global COVID 19 pandemic, most countries have implemented a lockdown as an initiative to control the spread of the virus. South Africa is no exception as the country joined most countries and announced the national lockdown in March 2020. With the national lockdown, Criminal Justice agencies such as the South African Police Service (SAPS) and the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) were deployed across the country to ensure compliance with the lockdown regulations. The police are the most visible and powerful arm of the state, the nature of the state and the way it is perceived has a profound impact on police-community relations and vice versa. With South Africa’s pronouncement of the national lockdown and state of emergency due to the pandemic, more inquiries and investigations into police practice during the national lockdown will be made. It is precisely in this context that this study aims to reflect on police-community relations during the national lockdown. A criminological analysis on the ramifications of the dented police-community relations due to the national lockdown will be explored. With the national lockdown regulations, clearly gazetted, this study will also employ criminological theories to further interrogate the regulations that impacted on the dented police-community relations.

"Soldiers against gangsters?": Evaluation of the impact of the army deployment against gang violence on homicides in the Cape Flats

The debate on militarisation of domestic security around the world Is mostly normative and conceptual, but there are few estimates of the direct impact of the use of military forces in public security tasks. This paper assesses the impact on local homicides of the 2019 deployment of the South African National Defence Force in police station areas in Cape Town, a measure taken to stem gang violence. It uses an interrupted time-series approach to estimate the effect by comparing murder counts in relevant precincts before and during the deployment, compared to precincts with similar murder rates and socioeconomic characteristics. Results show that there was an apparent initial reduction in the month in which the measure was taken, but the presence of the army was not associated with a significant decrease in homicides over the deployment period.

Determining compliance with the COVID-19 daily symptom monitoring tool used to identify suspected COVID-19 workers of the military health support formation employees of the South African national defence force

Determining compliance with the COVID-19 daily symptom monitoring tool used to identify suspected COVID-19 workers of the military health support formation employees of the South African national defence force

Perceived Barriers Affecting Adherence to Healthy Eating and Exercise Guidelines among Obese Active-Duty Military Personnel of the South African National Defence Force

Perceived Barriers Affecting Adherence to Healthy Eating and Exercise Guidelines among Obese Active-Duty Military Personnel of the South African National Defence Force

A Model for Women Representation in the South African National Defense Force: Concealing the Delusion of Femininity and Masculinity

This paper presents a model for women representation in the South African National Defence force (SANDF). The dominance of patriarchy and masculinity has frequently jeopardised the representation of women in combat roles in the SANDF. Male military officers have always predominated in the military hierarchy. Since World War I, women, like males, have played vital roles in the military as warriors; nonetheless, they have been marginalised, unrecognised, and underrepresented. The researcher used liberal feminist theory because she thinks that women, like men, have the right to engage in all political and social roles (including war roles) in all political and social roles (including war roles). The qualitative approach and an exploratory research design were used in this study. The population of the study comprised all female military officers in the Limpopo province. Snowballing sampling was used to identify the research participants and a total of fifteen female military officers were selected to take part in in-depth interviews. Data was analysed using thematic content analysis. The study identified elements that impact women's participation in the military as well as the institution's capacity to meet their requirements.. The nature of representation between men and women in the SANDF was found instrumental in concealing the delusion of femininity and masculinity. These findings were instrumental in developing the model for gender representation in the SANDF. The model has four components namely the society, women, government and SANDF. The SANDF is at the centre of the model and the other three components play a pivotal role in naturing the force to ensure gender representation. The study concludes that gender representation in the SANDF can only be achieved if all the three components are considered. Two recommendations were made: the importance of outreach and provision of information.

Development and value extraction of defence land assets in South Africa: Current paradigm revisited

ABSTRACT The South African National Defence Force (SANDF) has been faced with a declining budget for many years, resulting in the deterioration of prime mission equipment, inability to upgrade critical infrastructure, and a very limited capacity to recruit, train, maintain, and deploy forces. This paper argues that the military can alleviate the impact of budgetary constraints through a systematic and structured sweating of land assets under its control. It articulates the rationale for embarking on such an initiative, while proposing approaches and models for the decision-making process. It also highlights the risks of inaction based on precedents in other countries.

Professional military instructor identity in the South African National Defence Force

In 2015, the chief of human resources at the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) ordered the improvement of the instructional quality and military ethos of military instructors. This article, based on a comprehensive study in this regard, reports on the perceptions of a sample of military instructors in the SANDF on the existence of a construct, known as the professional military instructor identity and its effect on military ethos and instructional quality. A qualitative approach was followed, using an interpretivist/constructivist paradigm, involving data collection by means of a focus group discussion and expert interviews and using thematic networks analysis as data analysis method. A conceptual framework for the professional military instructor identity, consisting of sub-identities, influencing factors and identifying indicators, was constructed. Findings suggest that the professional military instructor identity is not recognised as a construct in the SANDF; however, the elements are known, although only vaguely. The findings also support the view that this situation may have affected the current declining military ethos and instructional quality of military instructors. It is concluded that the institutionalisation and popularisation of the professional military instructor identity, as well as professional recognition of military instructors in the SANDF, could improve the current situation. Keywords: instructional quality, military instructor, identity, military ethos, MPII

Food wastage management at the South African Military Academy officer’s mess

lobally, an estimated one-third of the total of food produced for human consumption is never consumed. This affects food security. South Africa has obligations to meet international commitments to reduce food wastage. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12.3 aims to reduce food loss through wastage by 30 per cent by 2030. To contribute to the achievement of this goal, South Africa has to formulate policies to reduce food loss to achieve national food security. The South African National Defence Force (SANDF), as an organ of the state, should align with national policies aimed at reducing food loss and waste. The current study was conducted at the South African Military Academy (SAMA), an institution of higher learning for SANDF members. The institution has a catering facility that serves approximately 350 resident students and other living-in members375 daily. To date, no research has been done on food wastage management either in the broader SANDF or at this institution. This lack of information and analysis on food wastage management in the military in South Africa prompted the current research. The study analysed food wastage management at the SAMA mess to identify the level of knowledge and skills of SAMA officers’ mess personnel regarding the status of food wastage and best management practices. Through this qualitative study, online semi-structured interviews, using Microsoft Teams, were utilised to collect data from SAMA mess personnel. The findings revealed that there are set measures in place at the SAMA mess for managing food wastage, such as booking meals in advance and being able to repurpose food. The participants also indicated that most SAMA chefs are trained in food wastage management and possess the necessary skills to reduce food wastage in the mess; yet, not optimally so. Recommendations from this research are that more and improved training of personnel, as well as awareness programmes among mess staff and SAMA students would further reduce food wastage. Implementing such food wastage management measures would benefit the SAMA and the SANDF, and would contribute to national food wastage management and the realisation of the United Nations SDG 12.3. Keywords: Food security, food wastage, food wastage management, South African Military Academy, semi-structured interviews

Comparing deployment experiences of South African National Defence Force personnel during peace support missions: Sudan vs Democratic Republic of Congo

The South African National Defence Force (SANDF) has operational responsibilities in Africa regarding peace support operations. These deployments are the bread and butter of the SANDF and members are therefore frequently deployed for extended periods. These deployments are unique environments with taxing circumstances, which place various psychological demands on the soldier. The psychological impact of these demands originates not only from combat and the consequent clinical effect thereof, but also from organisational factors and the contribution of family stressors. The study reported here endeavoured to examine the positive and negative subjective deployment experiences of soldiers in two different mission areas. The data compared and further utilised to provide a framework of two proposed matrices, namely booster and stressor matrices, which may affect the optimal psychological functioning of soldiers. The study adopted a survey design utilising qualitative data focusing on retrospective data. The data stems from the Psychological Demobilisation Questionnaire developed by psychologists in the SANDF and amended by the authors. Data were collected from both combat service support and combat forces, from two different missions in different countries, both missions were one year in duration. Data revealed both positive and negative experiences correlating with the context of operations. These themes were categorised in terms of the sphere of functioning (organisational, family and clinical) from the deployment experience. The booster and stressor matrices provide a practical and accessible framework to military commanders on how to ‘boost’ or mitigate some of the experiences of their deployed force, as the commanders play a key role in the deployed soldier’s experience and the impact of such experiences in the theatre of operation.

Sensemaking training in preparation for effective mission command in the African battlespace

The South African National Defence Force (SANDF), as a member state of the United Nations, the African Union and the Southern African Development Community, has certain continental and regional responsibilities. It is foreseen that the main areas of influence and operations of the SANDF will be situated in Africa and are referred to as the African battlespace, which holds challenges for deploying military commanders. We argue that the elevated levels of complexity and uncertainty in this context make mission command, as a command approach, especially relevant. The conceptual study on which this article is based, found that mission command is highly suitable to promote a command culture that is flexible yet robust, fosters unity of command at all levels, and simultaneously provides subordinate commanders with the freedom to act decisively when new opportunities are identified. For mission command to be applied in the African battlespace, sensemaking is an important cognitive skill that should form an integral part of the psychological preparation and training of commanders. Recommendations are made for sensemaking development in the current training of commanders in the SANDF.

Organisational support to overcome the challenges of extended absences of officers in the SANDF

Generally, military members are often required to work away from home, resulting in extended absences from their families. International studies have shown the effects of extended absences to be severe and associated with long-term social, emotional and behavioural challenges. Longer and more frequent absences negatively affect member morale and could result in military members terminating their employment sooner than planned to maintain their personal relationships and to ensure the wellbeing of their families. The aim of the study on which this article reports was to explore and describe the experiences of extended absences on members of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) with specific reference to organisational support to aid both the member and his or her family to cope with the challenges experienced before, during and after absences. In-depth interviews were conducted with 12 senior officers of the SANDF during 2019 and 2020, before the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic. The interviews focused on officers’ lived experiences of extended absences due to deployment or military training. The findings indicated that absence generally has an adverse influence on military members, not only due to the challenges they face during the absence, but mostly due to the effect it has on their families. Organisational support is not only required in terms of preparing the military member, but should be extended to include preparation prior to their absence, care for the military members and their families during the period of absence, as well as support with reintegration after the absence. The results of this study show that little support is provided by the organisation, especially during reintegration after deployment, and especially in the case of absences due to training. Organisational support during the preparation phase, during absence and with reintegration could mitigate the stress and negative experience associated with extended absences. With the aim of strengthening the capacity of the armed forces, we propose various initiatives that could assist military members and their families to cope with the additional strain of prolonged separation.

Safe and optimistic: Experiences of military members after the first repatriation of South Africans during the Covid-19 pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic presented a period of unprecedented uncertainty. The repatriation of South African citizens from Wuhan was a first for the South African government. These special circumstances of risk presented a unique opportunity to explore experiences of military members who were at the frontline. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the experiences of South African National Defence Force (SANDF) members involved in the first South African repatriation of its citizens due to the Covid-19 crisis. This included aspects such as possible stigma, perceptions and emotions towards Covid-19, repatriation, and quarantine experienced by the SANDF members. A quantitative research approach was adopted for this study. The exploratory study used purposive sampling to include only military members involved in the first South African repatriation and quarantine procedure for the Covid-19 pandemic. The research sample comprised 13 SANDF regular force members of whom 85% had tertiary qualifications. These military members were asked to complete informed consent forms and a newly created questionnaire, the Stigma and Related Matters Questionnaire. A reliability, correlation and frequency analysis was performed through SPSS. Cronbach’s alpha indicated high reliability and several strong relationships among the statements. The findings indicated that the military members involved in the return and quarantine of repatriated South Africans, were mostly positive and supportive of virus containment measures and lockdown practices. Military members did not report holding any stigmatising or discriminatory beliefs around Covid-19. These responses are in contrast with literature from other countries where people reported experiencing severe discrimination. The current responses however also support literature that reports positive perceptions on virus containment measures. More research is recommended as the Covid-19 pandemic persists in South Africa.

A positive psychology perspective on pre-deployment fitness-for-duty evaluations for external deployments: A proposition for the South African National Defence Force

The aim of this article is to introduce the reader to a psychological well-being orientation for soldiers in pre-deployment fitness-for-duty evaluations by screening for psychological risk rather than pathology. The aim is reached by firstly discussing the existing process of pre-deployment fitness-for-duty evaluations, then conceptualising the assessment for psychological risk rather than psychopathology only, followed by linking pre-deployment assessment of fitness-for-duty evaluations to the positive psychology paradigm and proposing an integrative military model for soldiers’ psychological well-being in the external deployment context. The discussion is concluded by recommendations for military decision-makers to consider this approach of psychological risk assessment as a feasible process.

Viewpoint: Prospect of Military Educational Roles during Public Health Crises - Lessons from the COVID-19 Pandemic in South Africa

This viewpoint paper examines the prospect of an effective educational role for the military during public health crises. Reflecting a broad understanding of environmental education as education to protect the public space, the authors argue that the military could provide this during times of crises. The response to the COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa included the South African National Defence Force (SANDF), thus offering a unique opportunity to inquire into this contentious possibility. At the outset of the outbreak, some scholars deemed the SANDF unfit to make any meaningful contribution to the fight against the novel coronavirus. Leadership and coordination hurdles, a longstanding legitimacy crisis and inadequate training, may justify this pessimistic view. Based on available literature and document analysis, the authors propose the viewpoint that the military can play a progressive environmental educational role during crises if (1) its educational programmes such as green soldiering are intensified, widened and adequately informed by training; (2) if more is made of the experience, cultural insights and personnel gain during peacekeeping missions; (3) if healthy civil-military relations are prioritised, along with (4) military professionalism, supported by a deeper understanding in society of the diversity of roles and skills the military could offer. The military itself needs to recognise this and not train all personnel as if they are about to enter combat with an enemy. Should these elements be present, the security forces could indeed be a force for good during times of public health crises.Keywords: COVID-19, civil-military relations, environmental education, pandemics, SANDF