South African Informal Settlements Research Articles

A Review of Official Documents and Literature on the Forgotten Victims of Parental Incarceration in South Africa

This article is a literature synthesis of the living conditions of black children after their parent's imprisonment. In Africa, the prison population currently stands at 1,194,497, while in South Africa, 147,922 people were being held in correctional facilities as of January 2021. Parental incarceration has affected all children, regardless of race, age, or cultural background. An increasing amount of research indicates that children with incarcerated parents are prone to internalized behaviors such as depression, anxiety, and withdrawal, as well as externalized behaviors including criminality and substance use. They may also experience cognitive delays, academic struggles, and insecure attachments in their relationships with both their imprisoned parents and primary caregivers. The term "caregiver" denotes the individual who assumes the role of the child's main caregiver while the parents are incarcerated. It is important to note that the literature focusing on child-headed households in South African informal settlements and townships may be limited. This paper is a narrative synthesis of the literature review and uses secondary sources.

Rethinking encounter through parochial meaning-making on the urban margins in South Africa

Abstract Originating in normative interventions aiming to remedy segregation through contact with difference, the notion of ‘meaningful encounter’ has become a portmanteau for contact that results in greater respect and tolerance. This article questions the epistemic justice of such a value-laden concept by presenting four examples of parochial meaning-making around encounters in a South African informal settlement. Drawing on secondary interviews conducted after ‘xenophobic’ expulsions of foreign-born newcomers from the settlement in 2008, as well as primary ethnographic fieldwork conducted four years later, the article highlights the meaningfulness of four encounters that did not lead to increased tolerance or respect for difference—encounters with affluence; with social mobility; with hardship in conditions of poverty and marginality; and with seemingly uncommitted newcomers against a backdrop of contentious politics. In each case, the article illustrates both the meaningfulness of the encounter, and its effect of producing tensions rather than mediating them. The article uses these examples to problematise the assumptions implicit in received notions of ‘meaningful encounter’: that tension necessarily pre-exist encounter, that established/newcomer boundaries are based on prejudice, and that encounters are not meaningful unless they advance a predetermined normative position. Along the way, it highlights the importance of embodiment, materiality, inequality, and space in the production of difference. Having made the case for a conceptual sharpening in the light of these seldom-studied encounters in the urban margins of South Africa, the article concludes by urging scholars to adopt a value-free conception of the meaningfulness of encounter.

Household socio-economic determinants of food security in Limpopo Province of South Africa: a cross sectional survey

BackgroundDespite the strong commitment at both national and international levels to eradicate hunger and achieve household food security, by 2030 food insecurity remains a public health problem. South Africa is amongst the countries with the highest rate of income inequality in the world and extremely high levels of absolute poverty. The Gini coefficient in South Africa is estimated at 0.68 Although South Africa may be food secure at a national level, large numbers of households within the country are food insecure approximately 52% of the rural households in Limpopo Province of South Africa were considered severely food insecure. It has been noted that the majority of households in South African informal settlements and rural areas were moderately or severely food insecure due to lack of access to food which was directly related to income. Rural areas have assets that can be explored to support households. The adult population above 18 years in South Africa make up 78% of the 5.9 million population with about 40% living in rural areas, this study explored household food insecurity in adults in rural environments. The current study aimed to explore the socioeconomic and dietary determinants of household food insecurity among the adult population in the Limpopo Province.MethodsA cross-sectional survey design was used, and data were collected using a validated pre-tested questionnaire. The participants were recruited from households in Limpopo province. Multiple linear regression was computed to explore the influence of socioeconomic and dietary practices on food insecurity.ResultsThe study included 699 randomly selected participants of which the majority earned a monthly income ≤ 3000 ZAR, and 31.8% experiencing hunger in the past 30 days at the time of study. The dietary practices of the participants were found to be associated with household food insecurity. The study found that large family size, being female in South Africa, low household income and low rate of regular breakfast intake were significant determinants of household food insecurity (p < 0.05).ConclusionIn summary, most of the households were poor and approximately one-third were food insecure. The implementation of sustainable employment policies, and food-based approaches and targeting rural household food production could significantly reduce food insecurity in the rural area.

Social perception and risk assessment of domestic uses of solar pasteurized rainwater in an informal settlement community

Solar pasteurization systems (SOPAS) were analysed on-site in a South African informal settlement, for the treatment of rainwater. This was achieved by (1) gauging community members’ perception of rainwater harvesting (RWH) and envisioned uses, (2) monitoring the removal of opportunistic pathogens in the rainwater [qPCR assays in combination with viability pre-treatment], and (3) applying quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to assess the risk of using the untreated and SOPAS treated rainwater for domestic activities identified by community members. Overall, 61% of respondents were familiar with the concept of RWH and 67% were favorably inclined towards using rainwater for daily household needs. Respondents also indicated that access to warm water, from the SOPAS system, may decrease household reliance on fossil fuels to heat water for various activities. Viability qPCR analysis showed that the SOPAS system reduced Legionella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Salmonella spp. cells by a mean of 94.4%, 98.6%, and 88.3%. Additionally, Pseudomonas spp. and Salmonella spp. were reduced to below the detection limit at > 73 °C and > 75 °C, respectively. Subsequently, QMRA for all three target pathogens showed that SOPAS treatment primarily reduced the health risk associated with using the treated water for washing/bathing, cleaning, and washing laundry, amongst others, to below the 1 × 10−4 annual infection benchmark limit. The study highlights the importance of community engagement, through social perception studies and community workshops, prior to the implementation of water treatment interventions, as well as the value of combining molecular-based assays with QMRA to inform safe water uses.

Cluster randomized controlled trial of Stepping Stones and Creating Futures to reduce mental health challenges among young men in informal settlements in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.

Informal settlements are high density areas in and around cities, characterized by a lack of formal planning and basic amenities, being known in South Africa for high levels of mental disorder driven by violence, and complex social and economic challenges. In particular, young men's poor mental health goes untreated, with relatively few evidenced-based interventions available in this setting. This cluster randomized controlled trial investigated the effectiveness of Stepping Stones and Creating Futures (SS/CF), a participatory gender transformative and economic empowerment intervention, on the mental health of young men living in South African informal settlement. A total of 674 young men ages 18 to 30 years were recruited in 34 clusters in Durban's urban informal settlements. Clusters were randomly allocated (1:1) to either the experimental SS/CF or control arm and participants were followed-up over 24-months. Intention-to-treat analysis based on generalized estimating equations (GEE) were fitted to quantify the impact of SS/CF on the men's anxiety and post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptomatology. At end of the 24 months follow-period, anxiety (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.62, p = .04, 95% CI [0.39, 0.99]) and PTS (aOR = 0.52, p = .03, 95% CI [0.29, 0.93]) were significantly lower for group assigned to the SS/CF compared to the control group. SS/CF, a gender transformative and livelihoods strengthening intervention designed to address poverty and other socio-economic challenges in informal settlements reduced anxiety and PTS among men with mental health challenges living in informal settlements.

Reduction of temperature fluctuation in a South African shack house using phase change material insulation

The majority of South African informal settlements are made from corrugated profile galvanized metal sheets. These informal settlements are prone to temperature fluctuations due to high thermal conductivity of the metal sheet and its low thermal resistance to heat transfer between the exterior and the interior of the shack. Families have resorted to using fuels such as paraffin during cold days, which has resulted in fire outbreaks that ravage surrounding shacks. This study experimentally investigated the temperature fluctuations around a shack fitted with plank chipboard and one without. Energy plus 22.2.0 software was then used to simulate the temperature fluctuations effects after integrating a Phase Change Material (PCM) layer on the shack walls. From the experiments, the internal temperature fluctuations on the shack without the insulations reached close to +50 °C during the day, and −5 °C during the night. While the shack with insulation reached +25 °C during the day and 7 °C during the night. The temperature distribution inside the shack was observed to be uneven, with the top section of the shack at higher temperatures than the bottom section. The region and the location of the shack largely contributed to the temperature fluctuations. Simulations revealed that by integrating a PCM layer in the shack walls, temperature fluctuations were greatly reduced. A lower phase change temperature yielded greater results as the atmospheric air allowed the PCM to fully solidify and melt, thus releasing the latent heat energy. A phase change temperature between 17 and 19 °C was selected based on the average atmospheric yearly temperature range. A 30 mm thick PCM reduced the temperature fluctuations to between +14 °C and +16 °C. However, materials with high thermal conductivity are not well supported by the Conduction Finite Difference used to simulate the performance of a phase change material in energy plus, it is proposed to remove such thin and high conductive materials in the model.

Heat stress: adaptation measures in South African informal settlements

Globally extreme weather events are experienced most acutely in cities. While formal settlements can respond to such events, informal settlements are often vulnerable and ill-prepared. Sub-Saharan Africa is rapidly urbanising with informal settlements that require effective climate change adaptation measures. Two climate adaptation strategies for informal dwellings are considered for their success under 2100 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate scenarios. Using existing data collected from informal dwellings in South Africa, the findings from a digital simulation study reveal that cool roof paints can currently lower excessive heat stress conditions by 42–63% when applied to high thermal mass dwellings with poorly insulated lightweight corrugated sheeting roofing. However, for the future 2100 climate scenarios this strategy only lowers excessive heat stress conditions by 12–17%. This calls for the development of integrated multifaceted heat stress adaptation strategies for informal settlements in Sub-Saharan Africa. <em><strong>Practice relevance</strong></em> This study assessed heat stress conditions and the application of two financially and practically feasible heat stress adaptation strategies in informal dwellings in South Africa. This involved assessing the efficacy of using cool roof paints and improved thermal insulation under current and future climate change-affected conditions. The findings reveal that Southern African informal dwellings experience extreme heat stress 32% of the time. Predicted climate change-affected conditions will increase heat stress exposure up to 40% over a full year. The study reveals that cool roof paints can improve the performance of uninsulated, low thermal mass homes in temperate climates by lowering heat stress conditions by 42–63%, yet this climate change adaptation strategy is only an interim solution with limited success (12–17% improvement) under future 2100 climate change-affected conditions. As a result multilayered integrated heat amelioration strategies are needed in informal communities.

Modelling the Spread of Tuberculosis in South African Informal Settlements

Due to the high population density of informal settlements, the spread of communicable diseases is highly effective in this environment. South Africa has been on the World Health Organization’s list of 30 top tuberculosis-burdened countries in the world for the last two decades. The rate of individuals diseased with tuberculosis in informal settlements, however, is reported to be double that of the country. In order to succeed in reducing the number of tuberculosis cases, policy decision makers have a growing need to understand the risk factors surrounding tuberculosis and data which may inform their decision in a quantifiable manner. In this paper, agent-based simulation is employed in order to facilitate the understanding of the spread of tuberculosis in these environments. The simulation model developed models the personal characteristics, daily movements and interactions between informal settlement residents. This model is able, within a certain range of accuracy, to indicate the spread of tuberculosis given certain input parameters, such as population size, probability of treatment termination and percentage initially infected, amongst others. This may assist policy makers in making informed decisions based on quantitative targets. It is evident that population density has a great impact on the spread rate of the disease. This is supportive of the fact that 90% of residents in informal settlements have latent tuberculosis. Given that only 68% of people with the disease seek treatment, by increasing this likelihood through incentives, it is possible to drastically decrease the rate of death and unsuccessful treatment.

Navigating Insecurities in Foreign Territory: The Experiences of Zimbabwean Irregular Immigrants at a South African Informal Settlement

This article discusses the insecurity challenges faced by irregular Zimbabwean immigrants as well as mitigatory strategies they deploy to survive in an informal settlement in Pretoria East, South Africa. Globally, immigrants (especially irregular immigrants) have been and continue to be viewed and treated as societal and state security threats in the host societies. In response to this perceived or real security threat, a raft of often punitive ‘defensive’ measures is implemented by the host state and society. By contrast, the insecurity experienced by the immigrants themselves at the hands of the host state and society is rarely highlighted, but rather glossed over or at worst played down as non-events. More so, their defensive survival strategies are heavily policed if not criminalised. This article analyses the range of short- to long-term individual and collective strategies deployed by the state, its agents, the host society and immigrants alike in navigating and negotiating insecurity. The article concludes by noting that the varied security strategies deployed are underlined by self-interest on the part of the many actors involved in the security–insecurity matrix, hence the recurrence of insecurity over time.

An Analysis of South Africa's Provision of Emergency Water Supply During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Accountability and Expiration

The COVID-19 pandemic has illuminated the widespread lack of access to adequate water and sanitation in South African informal settlements and rural areas. While the full complexities of the relationship between inequality, COVID-19 and water in South Africa are still unfolding, the importance of access to water emerged early on in the pandemic, and catalysed an emergency response from the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). This article analyses the impact of the DWS' COVID-19 response in three ways. Firstly, the available data on the provision of tanks and tankers is examined to highlight the importance of a reliable monitoring system. Secondly, the dangers of prioritising short-term action at the expense of long-term sustainability are discussed with reference to the twin challenges of further reduced municipal revenue and redirected funds. Thirdly, the implications of a future cessation of emergency water supply is considered. This analysis provides evidence and perspectives to guide the post-COVID-19 transition from emergency to routine water services provision, and distils lessons which might be applied to the approaching challenge of water services provision in the context of climate change.

An Analysis of South Africa's Provision of Emergency Water Supply During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Accountability and Expiration

The COVID-19 pandemic has illuminated the widespread lack of access to adequate water and sanitation in South African informal settlements and rural areas. While the full complexities of the relationship between inequality, COVID-19 and water in South Africa are still unfolding, the importance of access to water emerged early on in the pandemic, and catalysed an emergency response from the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). This article analyses the impact of the DWS' COVID-19 response in three ways. Firstly, the available data on the provision of tanks and tankers is examined to highlight the importance of a reliable monitoring system. Secondly, the dangers of prioritising short-term action at the expense of long-term sustainability are discussed with reference to the twin challenges of further reduced municipal revenue and redirected funds. Thirdly, the implications of a future cessation of emergency water supply is considered. This analysis provides evidence and perspectives to guide the post-COVID-19 transition from emergency to routine water services provision, and distils lessons which might be applied to the approaching challenge of water services provision in the context of climate change.

Food Insecurity in the Informal Settlements of Inanda Households Living with Children under 60 Months in Ethekwini Municipality.

Food insecurity is a continuing challenge for many households in South Africa. This challenge poses serious immediate and long-term health and development risks for children. Despite the intensive literature on household food insecurity, there is limited literature on the household food security status in South African informal settlements. Thus, the household food security status and dynamics in informal settlements are not clearly defined. Hence, this study assessed the food security status of households living with children under 60 months in the informal settlements of the Inanda area, eThekwini Municipality. This study employed a cross-sectional quantitative research approach. A non-probability sampling method was used, which used convenience sampling supplemented by a non-discriminative snowball sampling to obtain a sample size of 160 households with children under the age of five. Data was collected through face-to-face interviews, where questionnaires were administered to household child caregivers. Ethical considerations such as informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, permission from authorities, and cultural considerations were obeyed in this study. The HFIAS and HDDS tools were used to estimate the household food security status. Data were coded and analysed in SPSS version 25 software. This study revealed that higher proportions of the surveyed informal households living with children under 60 months were food insecure. The HFIAS analysis showed that approximately 34, 31, and 28% were severely, mildly, and moderately food insecure, respectively. In contrast, a small (approximately 8%) proportion of the surveyed informal households was estimated to be food secure. The HDDS analysis revealed that most (approximately 77%) of the surveyed informal households had low dietary diversity (deemed food insecure). Cereal, roots, and fatty foods were the main dietary components in the informal settlements of Inanda. It is paramount to improve the food security status of informal households living with children under 60 months through an integrated approach. This study suggests government and private stakeholders’ engagement in developing policies and programs directed at informal households living with children under 60 months to alleviate food insecurity.

Does experiencing a traumatic life event increase the risk of intimate partner violence for young women? A cross-sectional analysis and structural equation model of data from the Stepping Stones and Creating Futures intervention in South Africa

ObjectivesTo investigate associations and potential pathways between women’s lifetime exposure to traumatic events and their recent experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV).SettingSouth African informal settlements near Durban.Participants677 women, living in...

The effects of COVID-19 on vulnerable groups: A reflection on South African informal urban settlements

Background: The economically vulnerable population, mostly black, especially those who are residing in precarious informal settlements are most susceptible to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.Aim: To determine the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the socio-economic condition of the vulnerable groups in South Africa. It also attempts to reflect the government’s response strategies to provide help and services for the vulnerable communities who are considered to be most susceptible to the existing pandemic. Lastly, the response strategies of civil society groups and the challenges they are encountering in providing humanitarian assistance to indigent communities are explored.Setting: This is a reflective study where secondary data has been analysed and intertwined with the researchers’ experiences and insights of the South African informal settlements’ welfare.Methods: This article followed a reflective approach where the experiences of the vulnerable communities are strategically reflected upon.Results: This fascinating study unearthed the effects of the coronavirus disease on the socio-economic conditions of vulnerable communities, the economy of the informal sector, the brutal enforcement agencies during the lockdown period, criminality, the fragmented government response and the marginalisation and frustration of civil society groups in providing humanitarian assistance to those in need.Conclusion: The South African government’s fragmentations, bureaucratic, maladministration and corruption in public departments have adversely impacted the welfare of the vulnerable groups who are living in the informal settlements. The human rights violations by the security agencies which are directed to the indigent people, and the centralisation of the humanitarian efforts by government had a negative effect on their wellbeing.

6 - Shooting the Messenger: Mediating the Public and the Role of the Media in South Africa’s Xenophobic Violence

In the wake of the outbreak of xenophobic violence in South Africa in May 2008, in which sixty people died and tens of thousands were displaced, a fierce debate erupted on the role of the media. The focus of the criticism was South Africa’s newly-established tabloid press which is accused of fomenting violence and exacerbating tension by publishing inflammatory headlines and posters. But to what extent can the tabloid press really be blamed for aggravating the conflict? The scholarly literature on media effects suggests that direct causality is hard to prove. The accusation says much, however, about media-state- society relations in post-apartheid South Africa; it also raises questions about the state of the public sphere and the role of the media within it. Field work conducted by the Human Sciences Research Council in four South African informal settlement areas affected by the recent violence indicates that the tabloids certainly cannot be blamed directly for fanning the violence. But it does seem to confirm what thousands of protests in the past year have strongly hinted at: there has been a communications breakdown in South Africa at a local level between communities and the state, as well as within communities, which lies at the root of much of the anger and violence. By failing to respond to this breakdown and act on its liberal imperative of providing a “voice for the voiceless”, the media may be more complicit than it, or the literature, is willing to acknowledge.

Multidrug resistant Escherichia coli from fresh produce sold by street vendors in South African informal settlements

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of commensal and pathogenic Escherichia coli on informally sold fresh produce in South Africa, who harbour and express antimicrobial resistance genes and therefore pose indirect risks to public health. The majority (85.71%) of E. coli isolates from spinach, apples, carrots, cabbage and tomatoes, were multidrug resistant (MDR). Resistance to Aminoglycoside (94.81%), Cephalosporin (93.51%), Penicillin (93.51%) and Chloramphenicol (87.01%) antibiotic classes were most prevalent. Antibiotic resistance genes detected included blaTEM (89.29%), tetA (82.14%), tetB (53.57%), tetL (46.43%), sulI (41.07%), sulII (51.79%), aadA1a (58.93%) and strAB (51.79%). A single isolate was found to harbour eae virulence factor. Moreover, E. coli isolates were grouped into the intra-intestinal infectious phylogenetic group E (28.57%), the rare group C (26.79%), the generalist group B1 (21.43%) and the human commensal group A (16.07%). Presence of MDR E. coli represents a transmission route and significant human health risk.

Did young women in South African informal settlements display increased agency after participating in the Stepping Stones and Creating Futures intervention? A qualitative evaluation.

This paper investigates the impact of the Stepping Stones Creating Futures (SSCF) intervention on young women in informal settlements in eThekwini, South Africa. Specifically, whether following participation in the intervention the young women experienced a reduction in intimate partner violence, strengthened agency and shifted gender relations. Where changes occurred, it examines how they occurred, and barriers and enablers to change. SSCF is a gender transformative and livelihoods strengthening intervention using participatory, reflective small groups. Qualitative research was undertaken with fifteen women participating in the SSCF randomised control trial between 2015 and 2018. The women were followed over 18 months, participating in in-depth interviews at baseline, 12- and 18-months post intervention. To supplement these, eight women were involved in Photovoice work at baseline and 18 months and seven were included in ongoing participant observation. Data were analysed inductively. Data revealed many women changed their behaviours following SSCF, including: having more power within relationships, improved communication and relationship skills, increased resistance to controlling partners, shifting relationship expectations, emergence of new femininities and improved livelihoods. Despite these important shifts many women did not report a reduction in IPV. Nonetheless we argue most of the women, following the intervention, became more agentic. Drawing on the notion of 'distributed agency' as developed by Campbell and Mannell (2016), we show that SSCF bolstered the women's distributed agency. Distributed agency recognizes small agentic acts that women take, acts which to them are significant, it further notes that agency is temporal, fluid, dynamic and context specific. Women do not 'either have agency or not', rather being agentic depends on time, context and the particular incident. These findings provide an important contribution to the limited application of distributed agency and femininities work in informal settlements and are critical for policy and intervention science to reduce IPV and support women's agency.

Pan-Africanism from Below? The Peacebuilding Role of Local Peace Committees in South Africa

Against the backdrop of a renewed discourse on Pan-African unity and solidarity, this article analyses and interrogates the role of local peace committees (LPCs) as mechanisms for building peace and fostering social cohesion in South African townships and informal settlements affected by xenophobic conflict. Drawing on both documentary sources and interviews, the article makes the case that, in the absence of serious national or regional efforts to promote cross-border social integration, the grassroots peacebuilding initiatives of LPCs have become indispensable for reviving and rooting the Pan- African ideal of integration and solidarity in the experiences of the African masses. However, I also argue that, because LPCs are by definition embedded in community dynamics, which can sometimes be a source of oppression and violence, a critical, reflexive, and transformative framework is required to unlock their potential for peacebuilding and cross-border social cohesion. Given the complexities of the social conflicts LPCs are called upon to mediate, their success also depends to a large extent on a supportive institutional framework, even though informality and independence are their main currency.

Proximal design in South African informal settlements: users as designers and the construction of the built environment and its fire risks

ABSTRACT Informal settlements present a challenge for fire safety because they lack the regulation of building standards that have been central to reducing fire risks elsewhere. Rather than being the product of specialist designers (such as architects and engineers), constrained by regulation, informal settlement dwellings are instead predominantly the work of their occupants. Thus, the design and construction of informal settlement structures can be understood as a result of proximal design by the residents themselves – drawing on the concept proposed by Usenyuk et al. in their 2016 paper “Proximal Design: Users as Designers of Mobility in the Russian North.” This paper applies, and critiques, the proximal design concept through a focus on the informal settlement fire problem in South Africa. Our case study points to weaknesses in the way that Usenyuk et al. apply the concept of proximal design. Not only do Usenyuk et al. emphasize that proximal design involves mastery of a severe environment, but they also fail to give sufficient attention to the social context. Although a focus on proximal design provides insights into the informal settlement fire problem, it is vital that the focus on proximate activities does not obscure the importance of broader societal factors.

Developing an experimental database of burning characteristics of combustible informal dwelling materials based on South African informal settlement investigation

Informal settlements, which have little or no legal status and no official planning remit, such as slums, shacks and favelas, are exposed to an extensive risk of fire. Due to flammable construction materials of the dwellings, the combustibility and flammability of the materials of dwelling furnishings and the proximity and density of these settlements, fires can readily develop and spread to neighbouring dwellings. To understand the hazards related to fire development and spread, a database of material properties is required, however, the materials found within the informal settlement homes vary and are sometimes hard to define. Therefore, an accurate assessment of the common materials found in informal settlements, and their comparison to literature data, is required. This paper presents a total of 345 cone calorimeter tests used to develop a database of combustible materials found in informal settlements of the Western Cape in South Africa. Thirty-two different typical materials were collected from one South African informal settlement and heated by an electronic cone calorimeter. The critical heat flux for ignition was determined by decreasing the incident heat flux until no ignition occurrence. The materials were also heated under different heat fluxes of 30 kW/m2, 50 kW/m2 and 75 kW/m2 to simulate their burning behaviour under different fire conditions. Other important parameters were obtained including ignition time, burning time, maximum heat release rate and flame height. Different materials contribute to fire development/spread/severity in different ways and phases: for the fire development inside the shack, PU foam, carpets and clothing are most important; for fire spread between dwelling: clothing, shade netting and tyre play a key role; meanwhile for fire severity, tyre, PU foam, carpets and Masonite timber need most notice. The experimental results can provide basic data for theoretical and numerical analysis of compartment fire development and spread in informal settlements.