Source Quarries Research Articles

Tool for similarity identification of rapakivi granites in heritage buildings

• Building stone similarity to quarry rocks can be evaluated using in-situ measurements. • The similarity evaluation is made based on a specific chemical stone fingerprint. • Chemical fingerprint is developed using multivariate statistical analysis. • SIMCA and NBC are appropriate to evaluate the building-to-quarry stone similarity. The similarity of quarry stone with rapakivi stone of two buildings was assessed based on a 9-element fingerprint. The aim of the present case study was to assess the similarity between stones in buildings: the Kotka City Hall and the Orthodox Church of Kotka, and rocks in three Finnish quarries: Heponiemi, Jumalniemi and Metsola. Similarity assessment of building stones is necessary for effective and aesthetically-appropriate reconstruction. In the case of old buildings with stones of unknown origin, data on stone source quarries may have been lost over time. The present tool proposes a methodology to determine the most similar-to-the-origin stone and quarry for use in cultural heritage restoration . The tool in this study utilizes in-situ chemical analyses of the rock surface measured using a portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument together with modelling of the stone using multivariate statistical approaches (modified Soft Independent Modelling by Class Analogy , SIMCA) and machine learning ( Naive Bayes Classification , NBC) to determine the fingerprint of the stone in the building and assess its similarity to quarry rock data. The proposed methodology for identification of stone origin was utilised in a case study of rapakivi from the Kotka area in Finland.

Introduction to ‘natural stones and cultural heritage promotion and preservation’

• Selected papers from the II Heritage Stones Workshop, held in Torino in October 2021. • Geological and technological properties of heritage stones. • Challenges and perspectives on valorising source quarries. • Geotouristic possibilities of heritage stones.

Systematic sourcing of granite shafts from Gallia Narbonensis and comparison with other western Mediterranean areas

Determining the source quarries for granite shafts in antiquity provides insight into ancient trade routes for such prized materials. We briefly review how non-invasive techniques are currently being applied to address this archeometric task. In specific cases established protocols based on magnetic susceptibility can be integrated with chemical analysis, as demonstrated herein. A systematic inventory and sourcing of granite shafts of presumed antique origin was performed in the region that once formed Gallia Narbonensis. A total of 276 complete shafts or shaft fragments were identified in 21 localities. After fragment pairing hypotheses, they were attributed to at least 174 original shafts. Only four localities (Aix, Arles, Die, Riez) contribute to 54% of the whole corpus. Provenance was determined through visual, magnetic susceptibility and chemical comparison with known antique quarries in Egypt, Turkey, Elba, Corsica and Sardinia. Most of the shafts originated in Turkey (75%), followed by Elba (20.5%). Minor sources are the pink granites of Aswan and Sardinia, as well as grey granite from Corsica, found only in Die. Ambiguity between the Corsican source and the grey Egyptian granite from Mons Claudianus was resolved using portable X-ray fluorescence to determine Sr and Rb contents. As most of the corpus consists of shafts present in medieval to modern contexts, caution is required in interpreting our findings in terms of Ancient Roman architectural and economic choices. Long distance transport of spolia or newly quarried shafts may have occurred after Roman times.

Comparative analysis of the current uneven situation of historical quarries associated with the UNESCO world heritage sites in Spain

Spain is one of the most prominent countries regarding UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS), most of which were selected to preserve unique architectonical ensembles. These sites are usually characterized by the extensive use of stone as building material, which has a dominant influence on their overall appearance and value. This paper provides an overview of the general state of the building stones and the historical source quarries associated with UNESCO WHS in Spain. Ten Spanish UNESCO WHS were selected for the study. The analysis considered two main perspectives: 1) the scientific knowledge about building stones and historical quarries; 2) their conservation state, administrative situation, and social value. The case studies revealed a highly uneven degree of knowledge of the building stones and, especially, of the quarries. The lack of specific protection, touristic promotion or outreach activities is another issue that affects historical quarries, due to low political interest, in most cases. Some key elements to guarantee the conservation of historical quarries as part of the UNESCO WHS are: administrative protection that guarantees preservation particularly of the quarry landscape, awareness about the conservation of historic faces by mining companies, reopening historical quarries for restoration of monuments, limiting the maximum extraction volume, promoting scientific studies and enhancing social perception and tourism.

Competing English, Spanish, and French alabaster trade in Europe over five centuries as evidenced by isotope fingerprinting

A lack of written sources is a serious obstacle in the reconstruction of the medieval trade of art and art materials, and in the identification of artists, workshop locations, and trade routes. We use the isotopes of sulfur, oxygen, and strontium (S, O, Sr) present in gypsum alabaster to unambiguously link ancient European source quarries and areas to alabaster artworks produced over five centuries (12th-17th) held by the Louvre museum in Paris and other European and American collections. Three principal alabaster production areas are identified, in central England, northern Spain, and a major, long-lived but little-documented alabaster trade radiating from the French Alps. The related trade routes are mostly fluvial, although terrestrial transport crossing the major river basin borders is also confirmed by historical sources. Our study also identifies recent artwork restoration using Italian alabaster and provides a robust geochemical framework for provenancing, including recognition of restoration and forgeries.

Forensic igneous petrology: locating the source quarry for the “black granite" Titanic headstones in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

In Halifax, Nova Scotia, 149 victims of the 1912 sinking of the Titanic lie beneath petrologically identical "black granite" headstones. Those headstones, supplied by the White Star Line, arrived in Halifax in late 1912, but no known historical document reveals their source. They consist of medium- to coarse-grained olivine-bearing gabbro, with cumulus phases consisting of randomly oriented euhedral plagioclase laths, corroded olivine, and titaniferous magnetite, and intercumulus material consisting of augite with reaction rims of hornblende, both of which are variably altered to actinolite and biotite. Three types of forensic evidence [quantitative – radiometric age of 422.1 ± 1.3 Ma (n = 17), mean olivine FeO/(FeO + MgO) values ranging from 0.43 to 0.46, augite rim trace- element compositions (35 elements), and whole-rock chemical compositions (48 elements), including statistical analysis of all these data showing no significant differences between the headstones and their putative source quarry; qualitative – mineral assemblages, modal proportions, textural parameters, style and degree of alteration; and circumstantial – regional reputation, quarrying history, local logistics, regional transportation, McGrattan marker] connect the Titanic headstones to the Saint George Batholith in southwestern New Brunswick. Precise matching of any dimension stone to its source quarry is problematic, because that material connects only to a void in the quarry. Ideally, all physical-chemical-temporal properties of the dimension stone and source quarry should match, both quantitatively and qualitatively, but in reality only the ages must almost certainly match. Thus it is remotely possible for the right quarry to mismatch most of the properties of the dimension stone, and for a wrong quarry to match most of the properties of the dimension stone. However, in the case of the Titanic headstones, the cumulative weight of all the quantitative, qualitative, and circumstantial evidence, combined with a process of elimination and application of Ockham’s razor, indicate that the Charles Hanson quarry near Bocabec, southwestern New Brunswick, is the likely source for the gabbroic Titanic headstones in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Forensic Igneous Petrology: Locating the Source Quarry For the “Black Granite” Titanic Headstones In Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Abstract In Halifax, Nova Scotia, 149 victims of the 1912 sinking of the Titanic lie beneath petrologically identical “black granite” headstones. These headstones, supplied by the White Star Line, arrived in Halifax in late 1912, but no known historical document reveals their source. They consist of medium- to coarse-grained olivine-bearing gabbro, with cumulus phases consisting of randomly oriented euhedral plagioclase laths, corroded olivine, and Ti-rich magnetite, and intercumulus material consisting of augite with reaction rims of hornblende, both of which are variably altered to actinolite and biotite. Three types of forensic evidence [ quantitative – radiometric age of 422.1 ± 1.3 Ma ( n = 17), mean olivine FeO/(FeO + MgO) values ranging from 0.43 to 0.46, augite rim trace-element compositions (35 elements), and whole-rock chemical compositions (48 elements), including statistical analysis of all these data showing no significant differences between the headstones and their putative source quarry; qualitative – mineral assemblages, modal proportions, textural parameters, style and degree of alteration; and circumstantial – regional reputation, quarrying history, local logistics, regional transportation, McGrattan marker] connect the Titanic headstones to the Saint George Batholith in SW New Brunswick. Precise matching of any dimension stone to its source quarry is problematic, because that material connects only to a void in the quarry. Ideally, all physical-chemical-temporal properties of the dimension stone and source quarry should match, both quantitatively and qualitatively, but in reality only the ages must almost certainly match. Thus it is remotely possible for the right quarry to mismatch most of the properties of the dimension stone, and for a wrong quarry to match most of the properties of the dimension stone. However, in the case of the Titanic headstones, the cumulative weight of all the quantitative, qualitative, and circumstantial evidence, combined with a process of elimination and application of Ockham9s razor, indicate that the Charles Hanson quarry near Bocabec, SW New Brunswick, is the likely source for the gabbroic Titanic headstones in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Tracing Medieval and Renaissance Alabaster Works of Art Back to Quarries: A Multi‐Isotope (Sr, S, O) Approach

Multi‐isotope fingerprinting (sulphur, oxygen and strontium isotopes) has been tested to study the provenances of medieval and Renaissance French and Swedish alabaster works of art. Isotope signatures of historical English, French and Spanish alabaster source quarries or areas are revealed to be highly specific, with a strong intra‐group homogeneity and strong inter‐group contrasts, especially for Sr and S isotopes. The chosen combination of isotope tracers is a good basis for forensic work on alabaster provenance, allowing verification of hypotheses about historical trade routes as well as identification of fakes and their origin. The applied analytical techniques of continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry (CF–IRMS) and thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) only require micro‐samples in the low‐milligram range, thus minimizing the impact on the works of art.

Microscopic scale characterization of ancient building sandstones from Saxony (Germany)

Sandstone has been a traditional building material all over the world for centuries and is still used for this purpose today. Because of the various geological origin, sandstones may differ in petrography and mineralogy, which mainly determine their technical properties and weathering behavior. Therefore, a careful investigation of sandstone building materials is required and a complex analytical scheme was developed for this purpose. Sample material from important quarry regions of the Elbe Zone (Saxony, Germany) was investigated, which supplied material for a lot of famous buildings in the historic city center of Dresden, in Meißen and in the whole state of Saxony. The complex study included macroscopic rock description and detailed investigations by polarizing microscopy (phase composition, texture, grain size distribution), cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy (quartz types, feldspar and kaolinite content), scanning electron microscopy (SEM; accessories, pore cement, diagenetic grain surface features), and pore-size distribution by Hg porosimetry. In a case study, mineralogical and technical properties of building sandstones from the Meißen cathedral (Saxony, Germany) were investigated and compared with material from potential historical source quarries. The results of the present study allowed to assign unequivocally historically used material to specific sandstone occurrences, and provide a comprehensive basis for the interpretation of weathering damage on the historical monuments. These data are useful for current conservation and reconstruction activities.

Surface run‐off from mineralised road aggregate, Puhipuhi, Northland, New Zealand

Roads in the Puhipuhi area of Northland, New Zealand, have been surfaced with road aggregate derived from hydrothermally mineralised rocks, which contain iron sulphides (pyrite and marcasite). Oxidation of the iron sulphides results in localised acidification, typically to pH 3, on roads and in source quarries. This low pH is at least one pH unit more acidic than typical background pH of 4–5.5 in forested areas through which the roads pass. Regional background pH is near neutral, and this may be in part an anthropogenic result of development of farmland in the Puhipuhi area. Lower natural pH is partly because of variable degrees of mineralisation of the underlying rocks on the 100 m scale. Arsenic (As) is the best metallic indicator of mineralisation, and mineralised rocks commonly have As contents between 100 and 1000 ppm above a regional background of 5–20 ppm (fresh greywacke) and 0.2–5 ppm (basalt and clay‐altered greywacke). Road aggregates have As between 20 and 200 ppm, locally lower than naturally mineralised rocks and soils. Mineralised rocks have 1–100 ppm mercury (Hg) above regional background of 0.1–0.25 ppm (fresh greywacke) and 0.04 to 0.14 ppm (basalt and clay‐altered greywacke). Soils have up to 10‐fold variation in As and Hg within the soil profile, with high metal levels in the C horizon associated with iron oxyhydroxides. Base metals, copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) are generally near to regional background throughout the Puhipuhi area, including road aggregates. Neither As nor Hg are significantly mobilised in solution in run‐off from road aggregate, but the low pH signature of road run‐off can be traced for c. 50 m into forest soil, or more than 300 m in clay‐based watercourses. Sediments carried with the road run‐off may release As and Hg if they are transported into higher pH environments such as major rivers or farmland. The chemical effects of road run‐off are likely to be less than those from the natural mineralised rock occurrences that underlie many parts of the Puhipuhi area.

Investigations into provenance and properties of ancient building sandstones of the Zittau/Görlitz region (Upper Lusatia, Eastern Saxony, Germany)

Abstract Mineralogical and technical properties were investigated of building sandstones from ancient monuments of the Zittau/Görlitz region (Germany) as well as material from potential source quarries. The complex study included macroscopic rock description and detailed investigations by polarizing microscopy (phase composition, texture, grain size distribution), cathodoluminescence (quartz types, feldspar and kaolinite content), scanning electron microscopy (accessories, pore cement, diagenetic grain surface features) as well as the analysis of open macroporosity (total water uptake) and the pore size distribution function (Hg porosimetry). For the first time, mineralogical and technical data were obtained for building sandstones of the Zittau region. The results not only confirmed earlier conjectures concerning different source areas for the ancient building sandstones of the Zittau and Görlitz area but also allowed the unequivocal assignment of historically used material to specific sandstone occurrences. The data obtained provide a comprehensive basis for the interpretation of weathering damage suffered by the historical monuments and give useful hints for their successful conservation and reconstruction.

RIETVELD X‐RAY DIFFRACTION AND X‐RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL OCHRES*

Rietveld phase analysis of X‐ray powder diffraction patterns and chemical analysis by X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy have been used to characterize a series of red and yellow ochre samples from Aboriginal ochre deposits in South and Western Australia. The ochres were found to have diverse mineralogy, being mixtures of up to seven minerals, and also to have complex trace element signatures. The mineralogical characteristics and geochemistry of the ochres can be used to identify the source quarries. Using this combination of analytieal techniques it may be possible to trace the source of ochres in burial sites and on objects back to the original quarries.

Rapid biological colonization of a granitic building by lichens

The Galician Centre of Contemporary Art (Santiago de Compostela, Spain) is a large, modern building finished with a granitic cladding. Completed in September 1993, it is already showing signs of deterioration, including biological colonization and intense blackening of exterior surfaces, and the breaking off of cladding. In this work we investigated the causes of this premature deterioration. Biological colonization was most intense on the lower areas of shaded walls, the most abundant organisms being the lichens Trapelia coarctata and T. involuta. The blackening was chiefly due to the build up of microorganisms or their remains (no elements indicative of atmospheric pollution were detected). Both the cladding and granite from the source quarry showed signs of severe weathering (fissuration, high porosity, the presence of kaolinite) and had high capillarity, rapidly absorbing large amounts of water and releasing it only slowly. Because of this and the wet climate in Santiago the cladding was almost permanently damp, which, together with its weathered condition, made it highly bioreceptive and, at the same time, reduced its mechanical resistance, making it susceptible to breakage.

HAM HILL STONE: A MEDIEVAL DISTRIBUTION PATTERN FROM SOMERSET

SummaryThis paper explores the potential of simple quantitative techniques for elucidating a medieval distribution pattern. The distribution is that of a distinctive building‐stone found in parish churches in Somerset and throughout the south‐west. Dating is achieved by recognition of different architectural styles and the stone's occurrence is plotted within 25 km of the source quarry at Ham Hill near Yeovil. The study has dual implications in that simple statistical techniques enable new conclusions to be made concerning the mechanisms of the stone's distribution, but some of these conclusions can also be checked against the documentary evidence. Therefore both distribution and techniques come under scrutiny. In this way a complementary archaeological and historical approach united by quantitative techniques and documents is applied to a medieval distribution problem but has implications for the prehistorian also.