Source Of Social Tension Research Articles

The problems and perspectives of internal migration of youth in kazakhstan

The research clearly identified a majority of young people constantly leave Kazakhstan to work in foreign countries. This problem can be solved by developing social conditions for working and studying which retain the youth in our country. For context, the experience of foreign and domestic scientists was analyzed in our article. In order to understand the underlying issues raised in this study we should consider the life principles and ideas of youth development which currently exist in our country. This study has brought to our attention the key problems of state policy in the field of youth migration, the need to identify issues that concern young migrants so that future decision-making can target the elimination of social attitudes and problems which cause youth migration. The study developed recommendations to be directed at the government, local executives, representative bodies and civil society organizations, with a view addressing the problems faced by young people, which are sources of social tension and lead to migration. The research showed that the majority of migrants do not have membership of pension funds and are excluding from the provision of  social welfare benefits and allowances for themselves and their children. More than five hundred respondents and students aged from 18 to 28, from different regions of the country, were interviewed as part of the research. A comparative analysis of statistical data of young people working abroad was also conducted. The main reasons and consequences of the departure of the youth of Kazakhstan abroad were therefore determined. The practical significance of this research is that it be used when discussing and resolving the issue of youth migration in the subject areas of political science and sociology. Key words: Youth of Kazakhstan, internal migration, education abroad, global integration, social support

Virtualization of Cross-Border Labor Migration.

Under virtual labor migration, or telemigration, in the expert community it is customary to understand remote work or the provision of services that are carried out in a cross-border format. The presence of the word migration in this term logically prompts us to consider the designated process in a migration context. From the standpoint of the concept of migration transition, the spread of virtual migration can be interpreted as a new link in the chain of mobility transformations generated by multifaceted digital transformations. With this kind of migration, a person crosses only virtual borders of states and, without leaving the country of residence, actually works outside it and performs the tasks of a foreign customer in a remote electronic mode. The short duration and rapid turnover of most jobs in cyberspace makes this process extremely circulatory, uncharacteristic of traditional labor relations. So far, this employment model has been limited in scope, but it is rapidly developing, having gained great momentum in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, and may become significant in the future. While paying dividends to workers and employers interacting in global digitalized labor markets, virtual migration simultaneously exacerbates chronic imbalances and generates new sources of social tension. They are connected, among other things, with the global asymmetry of socioeconomic and digital development, the emergence of new factors and areas of competition for workers in the labor market, and insufficient social protection of the workers. Optimization of the development of virtual migration could be facilitated by comprehensive regulatory measures at the level of international organizations, states, and companies.

Language Policy of the CIS Countries: Current State and Prospects

Language policy issues are inextricably linked with the socio-political vectors of development of a state. The significance of this problem field is actualised with a number of examples from modern history, when the "language issue" became a source of social tension, led to various kinds of conflicts, including interstate ones. The article is devoted to the analytical study of the modern specifics of language policy in the CIS countries. Research attention is focused on nine states that are active members of the integration association (Ukraine, which de facto does not participate in the activities of the Commonwealth, and Russia are not considered due to the presence of administrative national autonomies and the number of different ethno-cultural communities, as well as the need to reflect in the work the peculiarities of the functioning of the Russian language, which has a special status in the region). The practice of implementing the language policy pursued in the CIS countries allows to generalize and compare the experience of states that have relatively recently received sovereignty and the ability to form an appropriate agenda independently. The analysis made it possible to identify the general directions of language policy, typical for individual countries: 1) protection of the languages of the titular nation with the consolidation of their status as the only state and official for all spheres of communicative interaction (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Uzbekistan); 2) carrying out an alphabetical reform in order to switch to the Latin alphabet (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Uzbekistan); 3) implementation of the policy of state bi- or polylingualism (Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan); 4) attempts to solve precedent linguistic problems (nomination of the state language for Moldova, the status of the Russian language for Armenia and Georgia).

New forms of social conflicts in the system of higher education in Russia

The article analyzes the main trends in the transformation of the modern system of higher education in Russia, which contain objective risks and contribute to the growth of social tension in the educational environment. The author points to the main aspects of considering significant changes in the higher education system, including: active dissemination of new digital technologies in the educational process; the consequences of integrating the Russian higher education system into a single European educational space; the emergence of new educational and management practices; the consequences of the commercialization of the higher education system. The period of transition of the higher education system from the traditional model to the digital one is characterized by the exacerbation of existing structural contradictions and social inequality, as well as the emergence of new risks in development.The article examines possible sources of social conflicts in the higher education system and provides their typology: conflicts of the “society — higher school” type, “administration — collectives of an educational institution”, “subject-subject”. A significant source is also the contradiction between the traditionally established educational practices and new digital practices that require special training of scientific and pedagogical personnel and an effective information base.The author conclude that the growth of social tension and, as a consequence, the emergence of new forms of social conflicts in the educational environment, can be explained by the unpreparedness of the Russian higher education system and society as a whole for the ongoing changes. Results of the transformation of the modern higher education system in Russia, on the one hand, new prospects have appeared for training and professional development of participants in the educational process, and on the other hand, sources of social tension and conflict in the educational environment have become more active. To implement a systematic and effective final transition from a traditional to a digital education model, a radical restructuring of the entire higher education system at the state level, the introduction of modular digital educational environments and the creation of an effective information base on an integrated educational platform are required.

Пандемическое тестирование устойчивости развивающихся трендов высшего образования

The article is devoted to objectifying the consequences of the emergency transition to distance education in universities and the global decline in academic mobility during the 2020 pandemic through the prism of active implementation of the methodology of success and excellence in education. The author highlighted the current trends in education by the beginning of the second decade of the 21st century: increasing inequality in the education system; the predominance of the idea and methodology of success and excellence; a stable division into global and regional; the replacement of the model of internalization of values with the model of knowledge generation; refusal of targeted state subsidies in favor of self-financing; precarization of the middle teaching class; demonstration of the superiority of digital solutions in the translation of knowledge; creation of outsourcing chains of interaction in the educational sphere (research centers – universities, universities – commercial publishing houses, schools – career guidance centers, universities – online plaftorms, etc.). The article analyzes the aspects of changes in the modern model of higher education, taking into account the desire to position universities in the world educational rankings. The basis for a discussion of the choice of development priorities has been formed, taking into account the growing dissatisfaction of teachers with the need to match the model of success and excellence in their educational and scientific activities. It was found that pre-pandemic trends in education were multidirectional, and their impact on education systems and learning models (global or regional) was more stimulating for development, rather than mandatory for survival. The crisis has divided the manifestations of the new into two components: necessary renewal and sufficient improvement to ensure stability. It is noted that education is characterized by a fairly conservative approach to the organization of the educational process, so the extreme transition to distance learning during the pandemic actually replaced the evolutionary period of transformation of education, which would have lasted for more than one decade. Academic mobility, which has become widespread in the world, but which was forced to temporarily stop its activity during the pandemic, in the new conditions can continue to contribute to improving the ranking of universities, but can also carry threats of precarization to their working teachers and become a source of social tension, which should be taken into account when developing university development programs in the context of universal digitalization. Conclusions are drawn about trends have been tested by the pandemic reality, which will determine the vector of future development of higher education. Acknowledgements. The reported study was funded by RFBR according to the research project № 20-04-60109.

ЕКОНОМІЧНА НЕРІВНІСТЬ: СВІТОВИЙ ДОСВІД ТА ОСОБЛИВОСТІ В УКРАЇНІ

Introduction. The greatest and most controversial problem that is characteristic not only for Ukraine but also for the whole world is the economic inequality that accompanies humanity throughout its existence. It negatively affects the standard of population living, affects human development, is a source of social tension and state instability, adversely affects the national economy development, but on the other hand, it is the driving force of the population economic activity. Currently, the question of economic inequality arises quite sharply, because the structure of Ukrainian society is characterized by a low share of the middle class, a large differentiation of incomes, and a large proportion of the poor. The purpose of the article is to reveal the nature and characteristics of economic inequality in Ukraine, the development of proposals for improving measures to overcome economic inequality in Ukraine. Results. Economic inequality in Ukraine was studied using the Lorenz curve, Gini coefficient and income quintile ratio. The dynamics of living wage, nominal and real wages in Ukraine are considered. The standard of living and average monthly wages in Ukraine and Europe are analyzed. The main directions of reforming the social policy of Ukraine to ensure sustainable social development are identified. The main measures to overcome economic inequality in Ukraine are identified. Conclusions. Ukrainian society is characterized by high differentiation between different groups of the population. There is no powerful middle class in Ukraine that should be a pillar of the country's economic stability. To overcome economic inequality in Ukraine, it is necessary to take the following measures: the establishment of average prices for the range of goods in the consumer basket; providing social transfers directly to the consumer; increasing state social guarantees; balancing the purchasing power of wages and rising prices for goods and services; clear definition and approval by law of social benefits size and categories of people receiving them; strengthening state regulation of the income generation distribution; increasing the employment level; maintenance and development of small and medium-sized businesses; conducting a true monitoring of the strategic directions of poverty reduction among the population; state regulation for strengthening of the middle class positions. Keywords: economic inequality, standard of living, salary, Lorenz curve, Gini coefficient, income quintile ratio.

SOCIAL WELL-BEING OF THE POPULATION OF THE BORDER RUSSIAN REGION IN TERMS OF HUMANITARIAN CHALLENGES (THE EXAMPLE OF THE ROSTOV REGION)

The issues related to the study of social well-being of the population are presented in terms of the humanitarian challenges experienced in Russian regions. The paper identifies the latent sources of social tension with the border regions classified as high-risk areas of special research interest. In this article, the authors identify and analyze the main components affecting the well-being of the population in the Rostov region, a border region of Russia, from a macrosocial perspective. The empirical basis for the work includes the materials of sociological research conducted by scientists of the Southern Federal University and the South Russian Branch of the Federal Research Sociological Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2013–2017. Based on the results of the empirical measurements, the authors propose that an increase in the population’s overall level of social well-being is vital in forming the long-term strategic goal of the public authorities for social stability in the Rostov border region. The study findings suggest that the main measures need to be aimed at finding ways to reduce the conflict potential of migration; increase the openness of the labor market and reduce the level of unemployment; and improve the security measures, taking into account the proximity to state border.

Contradictions of the Practices of Consumption as the Specific Sources of Social Tension in the Contemporary Public Space

The article substantiates the theoretical and practical significance of a sociological understanding of the contradictions of the practices of consumption as the specific sources of social tension in the contemporary public space of economic, political and sociocultural communications. It was emphasized that at the present stage of global and regional social transformations consumption is an important determinative factor of the value orientations by the population and becomes the specific subject-matter of scientific discussions both in Ukraine and abroad. The situation of conceptual uncertainty of the phenomenal and procedural features of the concept of «consumption», which reflects significant changes in the traditional views to consumption as one of the most important identification criteria of the social differentiation of society is analyzed by the author. The proofs of the scientific understanding of consumption as the fundamental civilization transcultural factor for providing organization and technological development of the contemporary production systems and as the effective resource exchange between individual and collective actors of public life are presented. It is argued that under conditions of the intensive global resource exchange, which caused by the activities of TNCs and by the processes of global human migration, the social influence of the new dysfunctional manifestations of consumption in the public space of the contemporary societies reflect the processes of real competition between different models of consumption and also reflect the increasing manipulative influence of mass media and of advertising as technological means of translation of values ideology of consumerism and the standards of elite consumption, without taking into account the existing deep social and economic inequalities in consumption practices by individual and collective actors. In the article is also proposed by the author the scientific research strategy which is oriented to understanding and studying the processes of intensification of the dysfunctional manifestations of consumption practices as the specific sources of social tension in order to develop effective managerial technologies for humanizing social life.

Casino tourism, economic inequality, and housing bubbles

Potential linkages among tourism, inequality, and housing are addressed for an integrated analysis in this paper, with Macao treated as a typical case. Casino tourism, albeit performing as a major key to local economic growth, is ultimately vulnerable to external shocks to gambling demand, as evidenced by the current sharp downturn in Macao. We find that faster gaming growth leads to higher income inequality while at the same time both factors are responsible for soaring housing bubbles, which constitute the very source of social tensions as in Macao. Casino tourism if not well managed may not be a panacea for all development goals. The implication for policy derived from this study is that Macao must deal with underlying issues rather than apply palliative measures. Its market failures may necessitate government interventions to ensure social equity and sustainable tourism.

Noise emission from alternative fuel vehicles: Study case

Noise pollution has become a source of social tension, with economic development on one hand and quality of life on the other. The number of vehicles on the road is increasing constantly, especially in urban areas. As a consequence, environmental pollution has also increased, not only due to fuel emissions harmful to people, but also due to noise pollution; therefore, the control of the acoustic environment has turned out to be a key issue and a technological challenge.According to Ibarra et al. there have been recent studies on the quantification and characterization of noise emitted by vehicles in the near and far fields, but this kind of work has mainly been developed for internal combustion vehicles fuelled by diesel or petrol. With new emerging technologies aimed at improving world social and environmental conditions, new alternative fuel vehicles are appearing around the world, especially in large cities. These new vehicles have not yet been characterized regarding their noise emissions. The aim of this work is to characterize and quantify the level of noise emitted by alternative fuel vehicles, such as hybrid and electric vehicles, for both near and far fields. To achieve this, it would be very useful to incorporate simulations of noise mapping.Experimental results of this work demonstrate that hybrid and electric engines have made important contributions towards reducing engine noise in suburban and urban traffic, at least 10dBA less than diesel or petrol vehicles; however, noise from the tyre-ground interaction remains the main source of noise, especially in suburban roads at high speeds.

Les applaudissements comme source de tension : Étude de la réception des 24 Préludes de François Dompierre lors de leur création au Festival de Lanaudière

La présente étude porte sur la réception des 24 Préludes de François Dompierre créés par Alain Lefèvre le 14 juillet 2012 à l’Amphithéâtre Fernand-Lindsay du Festival de Lanaudière. La soirée, placée sous le signe de la découverte d’une nouvelle oeuvre et de la célébration de la création québécoise, a été perturbée en première partie de concert par les applaudissements d’une partie du public, lequel répondait positivement à la virtuosité du pianiste entre chaque prélude. Les responsables du festival avaient pourtant demandé d’applaudir uniquement entre les parties, donc à l’entracte et en fin de concert. Dès lors, l’une des conventions les plus solidement établies dans l’écoute de la musique classique en concert (c’est-à-dire le fait d’applaudir une fois l’oeuvre terminée) est devenue, d’un prélude à l’autre, la source d’une tension sociale au sein du public entre ceux qui voulaient applaudir et ceux qui revendiquaient le droit au silence. Finalement, le silence fut rétabli à partir du huitième prélude, mais au prix d’un recours à l’autorité qu’il importe de décrire avec précision pour en comprendre les incidences sur le concert, la portée culturelle et la dimension historique. Par le fait même, c’est la pratique d’écoute en concert qui est questionnée quant à ses finalités esthétiques. D’autant que dans le contexte festivalier où a été créée l’oeuvre de Dompierre, la posture générale d’écoute favorise une situation plus relâchée, où peuvent intervenir des formes de dissension entre les valeurs des uns et des autres. C’est la raison pour laquelle l’étude s’appuie sur la sociomusicologie, qui est la discipline la mieux placée pour analyser les conventions et les rituels au fondement de notre relation à la musique, tout en dévoilant le contenu historique des pratiques culturelles comme celle de l’écoute de la musique classique.

From Recruitment to Reintegration: Communities and Ex-combatants in Post-Conflict Liberia

In disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programmes, return to home communities is a normative given, around which reinsertion and reintegration support is planned. Yet such an approach is oblivious of pre-war social dynamics of rebel recruitment and civilian experiences of rebel abuse and coercion. These manifest as important sources of social tension between communities and combatants in the post-war period and complicate reintegration. This research shows that the ‘recruitment–reintegration’ nexus offers a key variable for explaining tensions between civilian communities and ex-combatants in post-conflict Liberia, and could be leveraged in future efforts to improve DDR programmes.

Shaping the night: How licensing, social divisions and informal social controls mould the form and content of nightlife

This paper considers licensing as a governmental tool for controlling crime and disorder in the night-time economy while simultaneously shaping that economy's social mores. Using recent contrasting examples from the English and Welsh experience – the regulation of live music events and lap dancing – the paper shows how licensing frameworks endorse particular social, cultural and economic forms while criminalizing, delegitimizing and suppressing others. Regulation of alcohol sales and entertainment (through licensing) sits in uneasy relationship with contemporary youth/young adult cultures and local leisure scenes. Young people's identities are constructed, in part, by and through their experiences as ‘consumers’ of nightlife. Within this context, heavy sessional alcohol consumption remains an important motif for young people; a culture of intoxication, combined with wider sources of social tension and fragmentation, governs the ‘life of night’ informally and in more subtle, pervasive and effective ways than formal dicta could hope to achieve.

The Saints on Sunday: Ballparks and Sabbatarianism in St. Paul

In the industrializing United States of a century ago, play and recreation became commodities--even on Sunday. This development challenged a Christian America that held the entire Sabbath sacred. Mass-market toys, like popular Noah's ark sets whose content and message promoted scriptural reflection and Christian contemplation, were considered appropriate forms of Sunday recreation for children. In other words, child's play could be acceptable on Sunday. For adults, however, the situation was more complex. Organized games, such as baseball, were less amenable to Christian messages than biblical toys. Paying to observe professionals play the game was even less likely to promote these beliefs. Therefore, Sunday baseball became a source of social tension, particularly in urban America. Since Catholic and other liturgical immigrants accustomed to the relaxed European Sabbath challenged the evangelical Protestant native stock for control of urban life, this religious dispute was overlaid with tensions of class, ethnicity, and politics. This story is about a series of such conflicts in St. Paul, Minnesota, where Sunday baseball debates not only reflected the tensions noted above--matters already discussed in the urban and sports history literature--but also had an important impact on the location and design of late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century ballparks. The Sunday baseball fight helped push the St. Paul Saints to build, renovate, and equip four principal ballparks in fifteen years. While Sabbatarians voiced objections about baseball and ball grounds in St. Paul, the reasons behind these concerns were more nuanced and complex than the arguments might indicate. That is, a popular issue of the day was successfully manipulated to serve other, nonreligious purposes. SABBATH WAS MADE FOR MAN, AND NOT FOR THE BASEBALL GAME! Speaking these words from his pulpit in May 1895, the Reverend J. C. Hull of St. Paul's Clinton Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church added his voice to the chorus that publicly objected to Sunday baseball games in St. Paul that spring. (1) The controversy in which Hull participated was only one of many that flared up in the city, repeating a scene played out across the country as Sabbatarians made their stand against the desecration of the Lord's Day. The American Sabbatarian tradition--which prohibited Sunday work, disruption of the peace, and various unseemly activities like sports, gambling, and entertainment--dates back to the country's colonial origins. These prohibitions remained strongest in the East, where they had been written into seventeenth-century legal codes and enforced for two centuries. However, maintaining control over belief and behavior became increasingly difficult in the face of the explicit challenges of the nineteenth century, among them westward expansion, industrialization, urbanization, and ethnoreligious diversity. (2) Sunday entertainments presented the greatest and eventually most successful threats to Sabbatarian restrictions, and the growing popularity of baseball made it among the most significant of these amusements. In Minnesota, laws against Sabbath-breaking were included in territorial statutes, carried over into statehood in 1858, and revised through the late nineteenth century. Nevertheless, certain things necessary for the good order, health, or comfort of the community were allowed. Various amendments to these laws suggest that definitions of what constituted good order were contested. For instance, it was legal to operate an ice factory or to use shoe horses to transport the U.S. mail. Baseball, however, was clearly prohibited. Between the drafting of the original laws in the 1840s and 1909, when Sunday baseball became legal in the state, the city of St. Paul experienced the rise of those social and economic forces that hastened the decline of strict Sunday observance. (3) THE 1895 CONTROVERSY OVER SUNDAY BASEBALL When Charles Comiskey moved with his Sioux City Western League team to St. …

Ethnicity, Rurality and Status: Hukou and the Institutional and Cultural Determinants of Social Status in Tibet

In contemporary China, the rural-urban divide is the most salient dimension of social stratification. The role of ethnicity, regarded as the most important dividing line in many countries, is less clear. China regards itself a multi-ethnic nation, and indeed seven per cent of the population formally belongs to an ethnic minority. Especially in the western regions of China, where the proportion of ethnic minorities is large, a better understanding of the relation between ethnicity and urban-rural status is needed to understand processes of social stratification and the sources of social tension and conflict. This article addresses two questions: what is the interrelation of urban-rural status and ethnicity in determining status hierarchies? How do the two dimensions operate simultaneously to form a system of social distinction? We will investigate the relation of ethnicity and urban-rural status not only as cultural dimensions of distinction and discrimination but also as institutionalized forms of distinction in contemporary China in general.

Contact Across a Diseased Boundary: Urban Space and Social Interaction During Winnipeg’s Influenza Epidemic, 1918-1919

During the influenza epidemic of 1918-1919 in Winnipeg, several hundred predominantly Anglo-Canadian middle- and upper-class women volunteered to nurse and feed victims of the disease, particularly the poor of the city's north end. The contact between victim and volunteer, north and south, promoted a sense of social order, but was simultaneously unsettling for the women involved and for the broader community. The paper utilizes Mary Louise Pratt's notion of “contact zone” to suggest that the extraordinary qualities of social interaction during the epidemic, when lives normally lived apart intersected, were a source of social tension. This tension was partially resolved through limitations upon who fit the role of volunteer, principles of scientific management and professionalism, and the construction of an ideal feminine heroine. Individual women's volunteerism nevertheless reflected a more ambiguous experience.

Inequality and Income Mobility in Hungary, 1993–1998

STUDIES ANALYSING THE INCOME and expenditure patterns of Eastern and Central European households in the early 1990s revealed that inequality had increased while mobility of income and expenditure had also grown.' Changes in income inequality in itself are not enough to give a real picture of relative income changes: increasing inequality coupled with increasing mobility can be a more positive path for a society than increasing inequality coupled with decreasing mobility. In this study income mobility means the size of the changes in relative income positions of people from year to year. At the beginning of the transition the economic changes and reforms created new opportunities and increased the ability of people to change their position on the income ladder. This article analyses the development of inequality and income mobility after the initial period of transition in Hungary. We concentrate on investigating income and expenditure inequalities and mobility together, focusing on the period after the transitional recession in Hungary. For this investigation we use household panel data. While concentrating on Hungary, we do not totally ignore related international research which covers income and expenditure inequalities and mobility together.2 Little is known on expenditure inequality in Hungary but this is definitely not the case for other East European countries in the region.3 People find it hard to get over a situation in which they perceive that their neighbours are overtaking them in the income, and even more so in the consumption, hierarchy. In an expanding economy, where growth in income is an accessible aim for most households, the problem arises more bluntly. However, in an economy shrinking for a longer period, growth, even if ever so small, becomes a sensitive issue and may be the source of social tensions. Relative mobility was made particularly acute in Hungary in the 1990s by the fact that the average household saw its real income decline significantly. As the 1995 stabilisation programme took place in the middle of the period under review, we aimed to create a set of tools to describe the impact of this short-term but drastic and complex phenomenon. To analyse mobility we use an innovative method similar to the traditional transition matrices.

The Exclusive Brethren and an Australian rural community

This paper examines the history, theology and geography of the Christian sect known as the Exclusive Brethren. This sect emerged as a result of discontent within the Church of England in Ireland during the 1820s and has gradually spread throughout much of the developed world. Central to the beliefs of the Exclusive Brethren is that they should separate from the perceived evils and corruption of the wider world. Traditionally, this involved a social and spiritual separation from those outside of the sect. More recently, however, reinterpretations of the scriptures and the emergence of a more permissive morality outside the movement have led members of the Exclusive Brethren in Australia to pursue a more physical separation. Members of the sect have attempted to achieve this spatial separation by settling in a few small, relatively remote communities in rural Australia. This emerging Brethren geography has led to significant economic and social changes in those rural communities in which sect members have settled. Drawing on the case of one such community in the Western Australian wheatbelt, the paper demonstrates that the Brethren have contributed to significant local economic activity and employment growth. At the same time, however, the sect is a source of social tension and controversy, largely as a result of their religious practices and beliefs.

The labour market in transition: Unemployment in Hungary

The number of people out of work is increasing in Hungary, and in other countries of Eastern Europe, as a consequence of the collapse of the Comecon market and as a side effect of economic transformation. Rising unemployment is potentially a major source of social tension, which may undermine the whole transformation process. So policy towards the labour market faces major challenges. Although in Hungary labour market policy measures were introduced relatively early, before massive unemployment appeared, the sudden rapid rise of joblessness affected the economy unexpectedly. With the number of people out of work increasing and long‐term unemployment expanding, the growing needs are constantly being confronted with very limited financial resources. This problem cannot be eased by labour market policy measures alone: economic policy also matters. However, its scope for manoeuvre is relatively low because of the high exposure of the Hungarian economy to foreign markets.

Land reform and agrarian change in India and Pakistan since 1947: II

Analysing the actual processes and patterns of agrarian change following land reforms in India and Pakistan the author shows how radical land reform ideology without a radical land‐reform programme has dual consequences — beneficial for the emerging dynamic landlord or intermediate classes and agonising and unsettling for the rural poor. The latter are deprived of the elements of paternalism and security existing even within the old exploitative system without the provision of a new framework of security. These dual consquences have been reinforced further by recent technological changes and the impetus to commercialism from these changes. The forced shift from secure to insecure, feudalistic to commercial, tenancy or the decline of tenancy resulting from eviction of tenants and resort to self‐cultivation by landlords coupled with growing economic differentiation between rich and poor peasants denote new and more naked sources of social tension and conflict than the old. They herald especially in India a ...