Source Of Protein For Human Consumption Research Articles

Exploiting Agri-Food Waste as Feed for Tenebrio molitor Larvae Rearing: A Review.

The agri-food industry generates substantial amounts of waste, including by-products and residues. The increasing demand for sustainable and eco-friendly practices in the agri-food sector has sparked an interest in finding alternative uses for such waste materials. One promising approach is the utilization of waste from the agri-food industry as feed for the rearing of mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). Since agri-food waste is rich in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and vitamins, as well as other bioactive compounds, all of which are essential for insect growth and development, incorporating such waste into the diet of mealworms promotes sustainable insect production, reducing the economic and environmental problems associated with waste disposal. This practice can also be beneficial for the rearing of mealworms since their nutritional value can also be enhanced. To this end, various waste materials, such as fruit and vegetable peels, spent grains, and food processing residues, have been investigated as potential feed sources, leading to increased mass production, lower cost, and enhanced nutritional value. This review aims to highlight the potential of agri-food waste as a feed source for mealworms, as well as their potential to enhance their nutritional value. Furthermore, the potential applications of mealworms reared on agri-food waste are highlighted, including their potential as a sustainable protein source for human consumption and as feed ingredients in the livestock and aquaculture sectors.

Effects of different preparation methods on the physical, chemical and functional properties of protein powders from Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) liver

Tuna livers (TL), which are often discarded as waste, are a valuable source of protein for human consumption. However, the preparation method used affects the nutritional and functional characteristics of protein powders. This work aimed to investigate the effects of different preparation methods on the physical, chemical, and functional properties of tuna liver protein powders (TLPPs) following heat (H) treatment, heat and ultrasound-assisted (HU) extraction, alkaline pH shift (APS) process, and supercritical carbon dioxide fluid (SC-CO2 ) extraction. H at 85°C (H85), HU at 80 kHz and 100 W (HU-80-100), APS at pH 11.5 (APS 11.5), and SC-CO2 at 350 bars (SC-CO2 -350) resulted in the remarkably highest total protein content among the different preparation conditions. All TLPPs, except for APS 11.5, showed lighter color characteristics. The most abundant amino acids in all TLPPs were glutamic acid, aspartic acid and alanine. The protein solubility and foaming capacity were efficiently improved by SC-CO2-350. Nevertheless, the emulsion properties and oil holding capacity were greatly enhanced by H85 and HU-80-100, and a significant foaming stability and water holding capacity were found in APS 11.5. Therefore, the TLPPs obtained following different preparation methods are unique and could be potentially utilized as a source of protein ingredients in several food systems.

Growth performance and heavy metal analysis of Oreochromis niloticus fed with phycoremediate microalgae supplemented diet formulation

The rising demand for fish as the primary protein source for human consumption is a continuous challenge to meet. Modern-day studies have exploited microalgae as an alternative plant-protein source to replace fishmeal. However, it is critical to protect the fish culture from toxic metal accumulation, which is dangerous to both the organisms and consumers. Hence, this research aimed to study the effects of using microalgae bioproducts on the growth performance and heavy metal accumulation in the muscle tissue of Oreochromis niloticus. In this study, 2% of Scenedesmus sp. cultivated in Bold Basal Medium and wet market wastewater was partially substituted to replace fishmeal. The physicochemical properties of formulated feed were analyzed and compared between control, formulation 1 and formulation 2. The fish were cultured for 12 weeks, and their weight gain was monitored weekly using an analytical balance. The muscle tissue samples were collected and digested using 37% HCl and 65% HNO₃. As a result, the growth performance of the fish in formulations 1 and 2 showed a positive trend and a higher average growth rate of up to 43.38 and 44.85 g, respectively. The effect of seven heavy metals, such as zinc, iron, copper, lead, mercury, manganese, and cadmium, on the fish was analyzed using the Inductive Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS) technique. An analysis of variance indicated a significant difference (p < 0.05) for zinc, copper, iron, lead, and mercury concentrations but not for manganese and cadmium (p > 0.05). It can be deduced that the inclusion of 2% Scenedesmus sp. in the diet formulation results in a minor variation in fish growth performance. However, this could contribute to maintaining and improving the growth rate of O. niloticus and the concentration of heavy metals in their muscle tissue. Continuous examination of heavy metal accumulation in fish is necessary to ensure the safeness and nutritional quality are adequate for human consumption.

Starch removal treatment, not the specific thermal processing techniques, improved protein digestibility of corn (Zea mays) gluten meal

Corn gluten meal (CGM) is a promising alternative protein source for human consumption, yet it remains under utilized due to its low protein digestibility and poor functionality. Thermal processing techniques have been demonstrated to effectively improve digestibility of plant proteins. The presence of other components such as starch also play a vital role in protein digestibility. However, the impact of starch removal and various thermal processing methods (such as microwaving, extrusion, heating, and baking) on the in vitro protein digestibility of CGM, as well as the underlying mechanisms, remains unexplored. This study demonstrated that the applied thermal processing did not significantly enhance CGM protein digestibility, while starch removal using α-amylase significantly improved protein digestibility by 26.3%–37.8% (P < 0.05). The elevated protein digestibility resulting from starch removal could possibly be attributed to the improved water absorption capacity and zeta potential, reduced disulfide bond content and particle size, and changes in secondary structures from ordered β-sheet to disordered random coils. The altered surface morphology with more pores and lower aggregation, as evidenced by SEM and CLSM images, also contributed to the increased digestibility after starch removal. This study presented novel evidence supporting the potential applications of CGM with removed starch as a sustainable protein source with enhanced digestibility and has unraveled its underlying chemistry mechanism.

Gastrointestinal helminths in tilapia (&lt;i&gt;Oreochromis niloticus&lt;/i&gt;) sold for human consumption in Maiduguri, Nigeria: A potential public health risk

Fish is an important and cheap protein source for human consumption in developing countries. It is the second most popular source of protein diet in both rural and urban communities in Nigeria. Fisheries resources contribute about 5.40% to the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) through income generation, employment, food security, and foreign exchange earnings. Despite the significant contributions of fisheries to the Nigerian economy, the aquatic ecosystem is prone to pollution from human activities which increases the chances of transmission of parasitic infections, which are detrimental to aquatic and human life. The present study assessed the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths of tilapia fish from different market sources in the Maiduguri metropolitan council of Borno State, Northeastern Nigeria. Samples of fresh Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fish (n= 125), comprising 50 juveniles and 75 adults, were screened for gastrointestinal helminths using standard parasitological methods. Twenty-nine (23.2%) harboured at least one helminth parasite. Of the 29 positive individual fish samples, 16% (n=20), 4% (n=5), 2.4% (n=3), and 0.8% (n=1) were infected by Acanthocephala, Cestode, Nematode, and Trematodes, respectively. The infection rate was higher in adults (26%) than juveniles (18%) and in females (23.5%) than males (22.8%). Fish samples from Baga markets showed higher infection rates than the other two market sources. Sex, age, and location were not significantly associated with parasite recovery rate (p&gt;0.05). The study concluded that Nile tilapia fish sold in Maiduguri metropolis were infected with different groups of helminths, underscoring public health risks to farmers, sellers, and consumers. Therefore, fish farmers should regularly consult veterinarians for advice on good fish management practices and observe proper hygienic handling of harvested fish at the farm level, during transportation to fish markets, and processing. The public should thoroughly clean and properly cook fish for human consumption.

Unveiling the potential of proteomics in addressing food and feed safety challenges.

The food and feed sector in Europe is rapidly evolving to address contemporary challenges, striving for fairer, safer, greener and more sustainable food systems. This includes the exploration of new protein sources for human consumption and animal feed such as protein derived from insects, algae or novel plant-derived proteins, and the re-evaluation of existing sources like processed animal protein (PAP). To generate reliable data on the diverse array of emerging protein sources for future food and feed safety assessments, a growing demand for the development and implementation of advanced analytical techniques exists. New approach methodologies (NAMs) including, mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics methods have been emerging as valuable techniques which potentially can be implemented in regulatory laboratory settings to complement conventional approaches in this realm. These MS-driven strategies have already proven their utility in diverse applications, including the detection of prohibited substances in feed, identification of allergens, differentiation of fish species in complex mixtures for fraud detection and the verification of novel foods and alternative protein sources. This EU-FORA programme was focused on three core objectives namely: (i) the training of the fellow in utilising MS-based proteomics for food and feed safety analyses, (ii) the involvement of the fellow in the development of standardised operating procedures (SOP) for targeted and non-targeted proteomic MS-based workflows for species and tissues specific PAP identification in a national reference laboratory (NRL) and (iii) the transfer and implementation of MS-based approaches and standardised protocols for PAP analysis at the fellow's home institution. Altogether, this programme facilitates the broadening and diversification of use of MS-based proteomic methodologies for reinforcing their significance within the domains of food and feed safety research and regulatory science applications.

Fodder Radish as a Potential Alternative Feed Source for Livestock in South Africa

The agricultural sector receives substantial support from livestock, which greatly contributes to the well-being of rural communities. Livestock offers animal-derived products, such as meat and milk, which serve as abundant protein sources for human consumption. While the majority of South Africa’s agricultural land is suitable for livestock farming within the smallholder sector, these farmers often face a variety of challenges. Among these challenges, there is insufficient access to superior forage resources, resulting in the limited availability of high-quality feed. Traditional nutrient sources for ruminants, such as soybean meal, grain, sunflower meal, and fish meal, are employed as supplementary feeds to provide exceptional nutrition and improve animal performance. Nonetheless, they present logistical, economic, and environmental challenges. To circumvent these challenges, smallholder producers have turned to leguminous trees, including Vachellia species and other locally available feed resources. They are utilized as feasible and cost-effective alternatives to supplement livestock, especially during periods of extended drought. However, these locally available feed resources exhibit inherent limitations, including thorn presence, high fiber content, low digestibility, and the presence of anti-nutritional and toxic factors. Cool season forage crops such as fodder radish present promising alternatives as autumn and winter forages for these farmers. Despite being widely used globally as a supplement for livestock during winter, fodder radish remains relatively underutilized, particularly among smallholder farmers. There is a scarcity of comprehensive information regarding its chemical composition, nutrient utilization, and remarkable potential to revolutionize livestock production, especially within the smallholder sector. Most of the available literature demonstrates the positive effects of fodder radish on soil structure, soil carbon and nitrogen levels, weed suppression, and other benefits. This paper systematically reviews the current state of knowledge on the nutritive value, opportunities, and challenges associated with the utilization of this crop in the cooler eastern regions.

Production, consumption, and market supply of edible crickets: insights from East Africa

Globally, crickets are gaining recognition as a valuable alternative protein source for human consumption due to their lower resource requirement and ecological footprint compared to traditional livestock. In this paper, we examine strategies that may expedite the sustainable domestication of crickets as a food source. Using survey data from 306 households in western Kenya, we find that supplying cricket production starter kits, granting access to credit facilities, encouraging participation in farmer groups, and fostering partnerships can enhance the adoption of cricket farming. Moreover, we provide new evidence that institutional training significantly increases cricket yields while embracing cricket consumption (i.e. entomophagy) increases market supply. These findings underscore the importance of technical training, provision of production starter kits, and raising awareness about entomophagy to achieve sustainable mass production and adoption of cricket farming.

Are insects a good source of protein for humans?

When insects are introduced as a novel protein source in human diets, we need to understand the protein quality to compare their nutritional value with other foods. Protein quality assessment methods are based on evaluation of the ability of the protein to meet the amino acid (AA) requirements of the human body. Most available data comes from animal models, either in rats or pigs. The limited available data supports edible insects as a high-quality protein source for human consumption. The farmed insect species considered relevant as an alternative protein source are generally of good quality, and the protein quality of the vast diversity of insect species harvested from the wild across continents are likely to be sources of good quality, though this remains to be assessed. For methodological considerations, the recommended DIAAS (digestible indispensable AA score) method relies on accurately determining the total protein content. When determining total protein based on total nitrogen (N), using the standard conversion factor of 6.25 which disregards the non-protein N in insects, the protein quality is underestimated in comparison with other animal-source foods, such as meat and dairy.

Integrated agriculture-aquaculture as an alternative to improving small-scale fish production in Zambia

Aquaculture is a significant industry in food production, and its contribution to food and nutrition security is well acknowledged. Zambia’s aquaculture production has continued to increase significantly, thus playing a key role in supplying animal protein sources for human consumption. However, recent estimates show that 75% of the national aquaculture production comes from large-scale commercial producers despite being by far the minority while the majority of small-scale producers contribute the remaining 25% of the total annual production. This low production by small-scale producers is attributed to insufficient financial resources, poor management and utilization of farm resources, lack of access to competitive markets, and more recently a changing climate. In this research, we examine the viability of integrated agriculture-aquaculture (IAA) as a means for small-scale producers in Zambia to boost their aquaculture output despite the numerous obstacles they face. In addition, the obstacles that could prevent small-scale farmers from adopting IAA have been emphasized. We conclude that IAA has the potential to dramatically boost small-scale aquaculture production in Zambia, but information and understanding must be improved to make it a more feasible alternative.

Exploring the Potential of Black Soldier Fly Larval Proteins as Bioactive Peptide Sources through in Silico Gastrointestinal Proteolysis: A Cheminformatic Investigation

Despite their potential as a protein source for human consumption, the health benefits of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) proteins following human gastrointestinal (GI) digestion are poorly understood. This computational study explored the potential of BSFL proteins to release health-promoting peptides after human GI digestion. Twenty-six proteins were virtually proteolyzed with GI proteases. The resultant peptides were screened for high GI absorption and non-toxicity. Shortlisted peptides were searched against the BIOPEP-UWM and Scopus databases to identify their bioactivities. The potential of the peptides as inhibitors of myeloperoxidase (MPO), NADPH oxidase (NOX), and xanthine oxidase (XO), as well as a disruptor of Keap1–Nrf2 protein–protein interaction, were predicted using molecular docking and dynamics simulation. Our results revealed that about 95% of the 5218 fragments generated from the proteolysis of BSFL proteins came from muscle proteins. Dipeptides comprised the largest group (about 25%) of fragments arising from each muscular protein. Screening of 1994 di- and tripeptides using SwissADME and STopTox tools revealed 65 unique sequences with high GI absorption and non-toxicity. A search of the databases identified 16 antioxidant peptides, 14 anti-angiotensin-converting enzyme peptides, and 17 anti-dipeptidyl peptidase IV peptides among these sequences. Results from molecular docking and dynamic simulation suggest that the dipeptide DF has the potential to inhibit Keap1–Nrf2 interaction and interact with MPO within a short time frame, whereas the dipeptide TF shows promise as an XO inhibitor. BSFL peptides were likely weak NOX inhibitors. Our in silico results suggest that upon GI digestion, BSFL proteins may yield high-GI-absorbed and non-toxic peptides with potential health benefits. This study is the first to investigate the bioactivity of peptides liberated from BSFL proteins following human GI digestion. Our findings provide a basis for further investigations into the potential use of BSFL proteins as a functional food ingredient with significant health benefits.

Microbial meat: A sustainable vegan protein source produced from agri-waste to feed the world

In the modern world, animal and plant protein may not meet the sustainability criteria due to their high need for arable land and potable water consumption, among other practices. Considering the growing population and food shortage, finding alternative protein sources for human consumption is an urgent issue that needs to be solved, especially in developing countries.In this context, microbial bioconversion of valuable materials in nutritious microbial cells represent a sustainable alternative to the food chain. Microbial protein, also known as single-cell protein (SCP), consist of algae biomass, fungi or bacteria that are currently used as food source for both humans and animals. Besides contributing as a sustainable source of protein to feed the world, producing SCP, is important to reduce waste disposal problems and production costs meeting the sustainable development goals. However, for microbial protein as feed or food to become an important and sustainable alternative, addressing the challenges of raising awareness and achieving wider public regulatory acceptance is real and must be addressed with care and convenience. In this work, we critically reviewed the potential technologies for microbial protein production, its benefits, safety, and limitations associated with its uses, and perspectives for broader large-scale implementation. We argue that the information documented in this manuscript will assist in developing microbial meat as a major protein source for the vegan world.

Caecal digestibility as an approximation of ileal protein digestibility evaluation in rats.

The rat model can be used to assess ileal protein digestibility rapidly and in first intention, but no standardised method exists. Our objective was to compare methods to assess protein digestibility, depending on collection site (ileum/caecum) and use of a non-absorbable marker. A meal containing either casein, gluten or pea protein and chromium oxide as non-absorbable marker was given to male Wistar rats and the entire digestive content was collected 6 h later. Total chromium recovery was incomplete and variable, depending on protein source. We observed no significant difference in digestibility between the methods for any of the protein sources tested. Although none of the methods tested is optimal, our results suggest that caecal digestibility can be used as a proxy of ileal digestibility in rats without using a non-absorbable marker. This simple method makes it possible to evaluate protein digestibility of new alternative protein sources for human consumption.

Hydrogen Oxidizing Bacteria as Novel Protein Source for Human Consumption: An Overview

The increasing threat of climate change combined with the prospected growth in the world population puts an enormous pressure on the future demand for sustainable protein sources for human consumption. In this review, hydrogen oxidizing bacteria (HOB) are presented as a novel protein source that could play a role in fulfilling this future demand. HOB are species of bacteria that merely require an inflow of the gasses hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and a nitrogen source to grow in a conventional bioreactor. Cupriavidus necator is proposed as HOB for industrial cultivation due to its remarkably high protein content (up to 70% of mass), suitability for cultivation in a bioreactor, and the vast amount of available background information. A broad overview of the unique aspects of the bacteria will be provided, from the production process, amino acid composition, and source of the required gasses to the future acceptance of HOB into the market.

Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis of Root and Leaf Transcript Profiles Reveals the Coordinated Mechanisms in Response to Salinity Stress in Common Vetch.

Owing to its strong environmental suitability to adverse abiotic stress conditions, common vetch (Vicia sativa) is grown worldwide for both forage and green manure purposes and is an important protein source for human consumption and livestock feed. The germination of common vetch seeds and growth of seedlings are severely affected by salinity stress, and the response of common vetch to salinity stress at the molecular level is still poorly understood. In this study, we report the first comparative transcriptomic analysis of the leaves and roots of common vetch under salinity stress. A total of 6361 differentially expressed genes were identified in leaves and roots. In the roots, the stress response was dominated by genes involved in peroxidase activity. However, the genes in leaves focused mainly on Ca2+ transport. Overexpression of six salinity-inducible transcription factors in yeast further confirmed their biological functions in the salinity stress response. Our study provides the most comprehensive transcriptomic analysis of common vetch leaf and root responses to salinity stress. Our findings broaden the knowledge of the common and distinct intrinsic molecular mechanisms within the leaves and roots of common vetch and could help to develop common vetch cultivars with high salinity tolerance.

Nutritional quality of protein flours of fava bean (Vicia faba L.) and in vitro digestibility and bioaccesibility.

Fava bean (Vicia faba L.) is a high-protein crop consumed worldwide and is an exceptional plant-based protein source for human consumption. The present study evaluated in vitro nutritional properties of four different protein flours of fava bean: minimal processed flour (MPF), cooked flour (CF), non-polyphenol protein concentrate (NPP), and polyphenol-protein concentrate (PP). NPP showed the highest protein concentration of 94.39 ± 0.76%. The heat treatment significantly increased the in vitro protein digestibility in CF (94.15 ± 2.45%). NPP and PP showed the highest bioaccessibility, 29.85 ± 1.88 and 33.19 ± 1.65%, respectively, no significant differences. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed bioaccessible low molecular weight peptides (<15 kDa) and legumin and vicilin presence. In silico analysis of bioactive peptides of legumin and vicilin presented high occurrence frequencies of bioactivities, as angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitor and dipeptidyl peptidase III/IV inhibitor peptides. This study supports the use and further investigation of fava bean proteins for human nutrition.

Genomics applied to livestock and aquaculture breeding.

The increasing global demand for food, due to the continuous growth of human population, requires improvements in the efficiency and sustainability of animal production systems. In addition, several challenges facing farming of aquatic and terrestrial organisms need to be overcome to ensure food security in the upcoming decades, e.g. adaptation to climate change, reduced availability of conventional animal feed ingredients, emerging infectious and parasitic diseases, among others. Genomic technologies such as massive parallel sequencing, high‐throughput genotyping, genome selection and gene editing, combined with highly efficient computational methods can accelerate the rate of genetic progress in animal breeding. Thus, such technologies can help us meet the needs for protein sources for human consumption in the upcoming years. This Special Issue aims at presenting current advancements in the field of genomic tools applied to aquatic and terrestrial farmed animal populations.

CONTROL OF BEAN WEEVILS USING SEED EXTRACT OF GINGER (Zingiber officinale) AND TUMERIC (Curcuma longa)

Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) belonging to the family Fabaceae is one of the commonly grown and consumed crop in Africa especially Nigeria. In most developing countries of the world like Nigeria, beans constituent constitutes a major protein source for human consumption; it can also serve as an animal feed. However, a sizeable amount of stored beans´ grain is often lost by pest infestation. Zabrote subfasciatus (Bean weevil) is one of the most common bean pests. Z. subfasciatus grows exponentially on untreated grain and can account for up to 100% damage of the product. This study examined the control of bean weevil using the seed extracts of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and Turmeric (Curcuma longa). A laboratory analysis of the sample was adopted in carrying out the work. Beans samples were bought from Unizik junction market and about 30 pieces of bean weevils were collected from the already infested bean. Turmeric and ginger were extracted using a Soxhlet extractor and ethanol as the extraction solvent. The weevil specimens were treated with 4mg/l and 8mg/l for each of the extracts respectively. From the analysis, results showed that 4 mg/l dosage of turmeric extract recorded 23% mortality rate of the bean weevil while the same dosage of ginger extract recorded 17% mortality only. The results also shows that 8 mg/l dosage of turmeric extract yielded a higher mortality rate of bean weevil with about 29% than ginger extract which yielded lower mortality rate of bean weevil with about 20%. Turmeric extract of 8 mg/l dosage was more effective as compared to the 4 mg/l as there is high mortality rate among specimen treated with 8mg/l dose turmeric extract than ginger extract. Therefore, the study recommended that turmeric extract should be used by farmer as a control of weevil during and out of storage to prevent weevil infestation and damage on beans.

Protein Fractionation of Green Leaves as an Underutilized Food Source-Protein Yield and the Effect of Process Parameters.

Green biomass has potential as a sustainable protein source for human consumption, due to its abundance and favorable properties of its main protein, RuBisCO. Here, protein fractionation outcomes of green leafy biomass from nine crops were evaluated using a standard protocol with three major steps: juicing, thermal precipitation, and acid precipitation. Successful protein fractionation, with a freeze-dried, resolubilized white protein isolate containing RuBisCO as the final fraction, was achieved for seven of the crops, although the amount and quality of the resulting fractions differed considerably between crops. Biomass structure was negatively correlated with successful fractionation of proteins from biomass to green juice. The proteins in carrot and cabbage leaves were strongly associated with particles in the green juice, resulting in unsuccessful fractionation. Differences in thermal stability were correlated with relatedness of the biomass types, e.g., Beta vulgaris varieties showed similar performance in thermal precipitation. The optimal pH values identified for acid precipitation of soluble leaf proteins were lower than the theoretical value for RuBisCO for all biomass types, but with clear differences between biomass types. These findings reveal the challenges in using one standard fractionation protocol for production of food proteins from all types of green biomass and indicate that a general fractionation procedure where parameters are easily adjusted based on biomass type should instead be developed.

Amino acids as chemoattractant and feeding stimulant for the commercially farmed decapod crustaceans: A brief review

The aquaculture of decapod crustaceans is expanding continuously to supply protein source for human consumption. Therefore, intensive research is necessary to improve the quality of the feeds in decapod crustacean farming. Decapod crustaceans are slow feeders, and dietary inclusion of plant proteins reduces their intakes on the feeds. Dietary supplementation of chemoattractants (CA) (to reduce food searching duration) and feeding stimulants (FS) (to stimulate ingestion) is therefore necessary to solve these problems respectively. Amino acids are commonly used as the CA and FS in aquaculture, and the feeding response of aquatic animals to amino acids is species-specific. As the chemosensory systems of decapod crustaceans are complicated, and their feeding responses are different from fish, it is essential to understand which amino acids can function as the CA, FS or both to the targeted farmed species. This review provides an overview on the acceptance of some commercially farmed decapod crustaceans to amino acids. Topics related to the efficiency of amino acids being a CA and FS were discussed, and recommendations on how to present amino acids as a CA and FS efficiently in decapod crustacean farming were also made.