Source Of Free Radicals Research Articles

Relationship between Oxidative Stress and Cellular Adenosine Triphosphate Levels

Oxidative stress (OS) refers to the deterioration of the balance between oxidants and antioxidants in favor of oxidants, and this may lead to disruptions in redox signaling and control and/or damage at the molecular level. The presence of low levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays a physiological role in intracellular signaling pathways. However, damage may occur in cells and tissues as a result of excessive increase in ROS production. Because ROS have the potential to damage almost all structures in the cell, including lipid, protein, deoxyribo nucleicacid (DNA). The main source of free radicals in the cell is mitochondria. ROS formation is a natural consequence of oxidative phosphorylation resulting in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production in mitochondria. The attack of these radicals results in damage to the mitochondria, a decrease in the activity of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes and consequently a decrease in ATP synthesis. On the other hand, ATP is needed for antioxidant synthesis, which is necessary for cell defence against increasing ROS. Therefore, a decrease in ATP levels makes tissues vulnerable to OS. In this case, it is likely that tissues exposed to OS will also have problems in ATP production and the decrease in ATP synthesis will further increase oxidative damage.

Vitamin D ameliorates particulate matter induced mitochondrial damages and calcium dyshomeostasis in BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells

BackgroundMitochondria is prone to oxidative damage by endogenous and exogenous sources of free radicals, including particulate matter (PM). Given the role of mitochondria in inflammatory disorders, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, we hypothesized that supplementation of vitamin D may play a protective role in PM-induced mitochondrial oxidative damages of human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells.MethodsBEAS-2B cells were pretreated with 1,25(OH)2D3, an active form of vitamin D, for 1 h prior to 24-hour exposure to PM (SRM-1648a). Oxidative stress was measured by flow cytometry. Mitochondrial functions including mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP levels, and mitochondrial DNA copy number were analyzed. Additionally, mitochondrial ultrastructure was examined using transmission electron microscopy. Intracellular and mitochondrial calcium concentration changes were assessed using flow cytometry based on the expression of Fluo-4 AM and Rhod-2 AM, respectively. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and MCP-1, were quantified using ELISA. The expression levels of antioxidants, including SOD1, SOD2, CAT, GSH, and NADPH, were determined.ResultsOur findings first showed that 24-hour exposure to PM led to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from mitochondria. PM-induced mitochondrial oxidation resulted in intracellular calcium accumulation, particularly within mitochondria, and alterations in mitochondrial morphology and functions. These changes included loss of mitochondrial membrane integrity, disarrayed cristae, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, reduced ATP production, and increased mitochondrial DNA copy number. Consequently, PM-induced mitochondrial damage triggered the release of certain inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6 and MCP-1. Similar to the actions of mitochondrial ROS inhibitor MitoTEMPO, 1,25(OH)2D3 conferred protective effects on mtDNA alterations, mitochondrial damages, calcium dyshomeostasis, thereby decreasing the release of certain inflammatory cytokines. We found that greater cellular level of 1,25(OH)2D3 upregulated the expression of enzymatic (SOD1, SOD2, and CAT) and non-enzymatic (GSH and NADPH) antioxidants to modulate cellular redox homeostasis.ConclusionOur study provides new evidence that 1,25(OH)2D3 acts as an antioxidant, enhancing BEAS-2B antioxidant responses to regulate mitochondrial ROS homeostasis and mitochondrial function, thereby enhancing epithelial defense against air pollution exposure.

Oxidative Stress in Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Oxidative stress in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI) involves reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS). Despite efficient antioxidant pathways in the brain, hypoxia triggers the production of oxygen free radicals and downregulates ATP, which leads to oxidative stress. Sources of free radicals during CIRI include Ca<sup>2+</sup>-dependent enzymes, phospholipid degradation and mitochondrial enlargement. Upon reperfusion, the abrupt increase of oxygen triggers a massive radical production via enzymes like xantin oxidase (XO), phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and oxide synthases (OS). These enzymes play an essential role in neuronal damage by excitotoxicity, lipoperoxidation, nitrosylation, inflammation and programmed cell death (PCD). Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) decreases as compared to neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). This is associated with neuronal damage, endothelial inflammation, apoptosis and oxidative stress. Strategies promoting activation of eNOS while inhibiting nNOS could offer neuroprotective benefits in CIRI. Understanding and targeting these pathways could mitigate brain damage in ischemia/reperfusion events. Clinically, tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) has been shown to restore cerebral blood flow. However, serious side effects have been described, including hemorrhagic transformation. Different treatments are currently under investigation to avoid I/R injury. Baicalin has been reported as a potential agent that could improve t-PA adverse effects, which have to do with peroxynitrite synthesis and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression. In this review, CIRI and interventions in oxidative stress are addressed. Special attention is paid to efficient antioxidant mechanisms in the brain and the production of free radicals, especially nNOS-derived nitric oxide (NO). The primary purpose is to describe accessible radical pathways with the activity of Ca<sup>2+</sup>-dependent oxidative enzymes, leading to membrane phospholipids and mitochondrial breakdown. <strong>Key</strong><strong>w</strong><strong>ords</strong>Oxidative stress; cerebral ischemia/reperfusion; nitric oxide; reactive oxygen species; nitric oxide synthase

Effectiveness of Calina Papaya Leaf Ethanol Extract on The Red Blood Profile of Wistar Rats Exposed to Cigarette Smoke

Cigarette smoke is a source of exogenous free radicals that can affect the blood. Calina Papaya leaves contain secondary metabolites that act as antioxidants. The purpose of the study was to analyze the antioxidant activity of ethanol extract of Calina Papaya leaves using DPPH method and to analyze the difference in red blood profile of wistar rats exposed to cigarette smoke after administration of Calina Papaya Leaves Ethanol Extract (CPLEE). The research method used 24 wistar rats with oral administration of CPLEE for 23 days and exposure to cigarette smoke for 15 days. There are 4 treatments, namely rats not exposed to cigarette smoke and given distilled water (K), rats exposed to cigarette smoke (KN), rats given CPLEE 100 mg/Kg BW then exposed to cigarette smoke (P1) and rats given CPLEE 200 mg/Kg BW then exposed to cigarette smoke (P2). Parameters observed were red blood profile (erythrocyte number, hemoglobin, hematocrit, MCV, MCH, MCHC, RDW). Blood was collected through the orbital sinus and analyzed using a hematology analyzer. Data were analyzed using one way ANOVA and Duncan Multiple Range Test (P<0.05). The results showed the IC50 value of the extract was 1,194.1 ppm while ascorbic acid was 22.92 ppm. The number of erythrocytes, MCV, MCH and RDW showed significant differences between groups with the highest treatment in P1. The conclusion shows that the antioxidant activity of CPLEE is very weak compared to ascorbic acid but the red blood profile (erythrocytes, MCV, MCH, MCHC, RDW) in treatment P1 is higher than other treatments.

The danger of microwave ovens in relation to free radicals formation, cellular inflammation, cancer initiation, and cancer progression

The US National Cancer Institute defines cancer as a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and then spread to other parts of the body. Cancer is a major cause of death globally and based on the World Health Organization (WHO) most recent data it accounts for about 10 million deaths annually. Cancer is a disorder of cell growth and behaviour, so its ultimate cause has to be defined at the cellular and subcellular levels. The focus of this review is on the danger of microwave ovens as a major source of free radicals in food, which then eventually leads to cellular inflammation, cancer initiation, and cancer progression. Man-made microwave and radiofrequency radiation technologies have been steadily increasing with the growing demand for electronic appliances such as microwave oven. Research have shown that these appliances affect biological systems by increasing free radicals formation, thus leading to oxidative damage. Cancer is a multistage disease which includes initiation, promotion, and progression. Free radicals in the form of ROS and ORF usually lead to cellular inflammation. Free radicals also lead to DNA damage, gene mutation, and mitochondrial damage. Food prepared or heated in microwave ovens are a major source of free radicals. Hence, the need for people to reduce or totally stop the usage of microwave ovens, especially those already diagnosed with cancer disease. Various research findings support the clinical observations of the author as it relates to the causes and management of cancer disease. The findings also confirm anecdotal evidences on the link between cancer disease and the usage of microwave ovens.

Effect of drying temperature on the bioactive compounds content of rose hips (Rosa canina L.)

Dog rose (Rosa canina L.) is a beautiful ornamental plant that provides fruit with high biological value. To be available throughout the year, rose hips need to be conserved, such as dried and canned. For this reason, a study was undertaken to investigate the effects of drying as the most common method for preservation. Therefore, the influence of variation drying temperature (20, 35 and 68 °C) on the content of flavonoids, total polyphenols, ascorbic acid, carotenoids and antioxidant activity - determined using the free radical source DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and a test measuring the measuring of compounds to reduce ferric ions Fe3+ (FRAP) - of rose hips was the main topic in this study. Drying decreased total polyphenols (from 38.06 mg g–1 by fresh fruits to 9.41 mg g–1 drying to 20 °C), ascorbic acid (from 2000.5 mg 100 g–1 by fresh fruits to 1308.2 mg 100 g–1 drying to 68 °C) and flavonoids, the latter only in those dried at 35 °C (0.54 mg g–1), but did not affect the antioxidant activity of DPPH (84.21–85.73%) and FRAP (2.99–3.41 mgTr g–1). The study also showed that the extraction time influenced the antioxidant activity level of fruit infusions for the first time. The antioxidant potential FRAP value increased systematically with extraction time, but the DPPH values of extracts obtained from dried rose hips were not affected by the extraction time. These results indicate that changes in the antioxidant activity of extracts may not be linear and that the choice of the time of evaluation of this activity may determine the results.

Carbon-based nanomaterials cause toxicity by oxidative stress to the liver and brain in Sprague–Dawley rats

Carbon-based nanomaterials have important research significance in various disciplines, such as composite materials, nanoelectronic devices, biosensors, biological imaging, and drug delivery. Recently, the human and ecological risks associated with carbon-based nanomaterials have received increasing attention. However, the biological safety of carbon based nanomaterials has not been systematically studied. In this study, we used different types of carbon materials, namely, graphene oxide (GO), single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), as models to observe their distribution and oxidative damage in vivo. The results of Histopathological and ultrastructural examinations indicated that the liver and lungs were the main accumulation targets of these nanomaterials. SR-μ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\upmu$$\\end{document}-XRF analysis revealed that SWCNTs and MWCNTs might be present in the brain. This shows that the three types of carbon-based nanomaterials could cross the gas–blood barrier and eventually reach the liver tissue. In addition, SWCNTs and MWCNTs could cross the blood–brain barrier and accumulate in the cerebral cortex. The increase in ROS and MDA levels and the decrease in GSH, SOD, and CAT levels indicated that the three types of nanomaterials might cause oxidative stress in the liver. This suggests that direct instillation of these carbon-based nanomaterials into rats could induce ROS generation. In addition, iron (Fe) contaminants in these nanomaterials were a definite source of free radicals. However, these nanomaterials did not cause obvious damage to the rat brain tissue. The deposition of selenoprotein in the rat brain was found to be related to oxidative stress and Fe deficiency. This information may support the development of secure and reasonable applications of the studied carbon-based nanomaterials.

Immobilized lipase enzyme on green synthesized magnetic nanoparticles using Psidium guava leaves for dye degradation and antimicrobial activities.

Zinc ferrite nanoparticles (ZnF NPs) were synthesized by a green method using Psidium guava Leaves extract and characterized via structural and optical properties. The surface of ZnF NPs was stabilized with citric acid (CA) by a direct addition method to obtain (ZnF-CA NPs), and then lipase (LP) enzyme was immobilized on ZnF-CA NPs to obtain a modified ZnF-CA-LP nanocomposite (NCs). The prepared sample's photocatalytic activity against Methylene blue dye (MB) was determined. The antioxidant activity of ZnF-CA-LP NCs was measured using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) as a source of free radicals. In addition, the antibacterial and antibiofilm capabilities of these substances were investigated by testing them against gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus ATCC 25923) and gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli ATCC 25922) bacterial strains. The synthesized ZnF NPs were discovered to be situated at the core of the material, as determined by XRD, HRTEM, and SEM investigations, while the CA and lipase enzymes were coated in this core. The ZnF-CA-LP NCs crystallite size was around 35.0nm at the (311) plane. Results obtained suggested that 0.01g of ZnF-CA-LP NCs achieved 96.0% removal of 5.0ppm of MB at pH 9.0. In-vitro zone of inhibition (ZOI) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) results verified that ZnF-CA-LP NCs exhibited its encouraged antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli (20.0 ± 0.512, and 27.0 ± 0.651mm ZOI, respectively) & (1.25, and 0.625μg/ml MIC, respectively). ZnF-CA-LP NPs showed antibiofilm percentage against S. aureus (88.4%) and E. coli (96.6%). Hence, ZnF-CA-LP NCs are promising for potential applications in environmental and biomedical uses.

Effect of Giving Jamblang (Syzygium cumini) Leaf Extract on Testosterone Serum Level and Concentration of Spermatozoa in Male Rats Intoxicated with Lead Acetate

Lead is a source of free radicals in the environment. Lead accumulation in the blood generates increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the body and various health problems, including male infertility. One effort that can be made to prevent this problem is to use antioxidants from natural sources such as jamblang (Syzygium cumini) leaf extract. This study is experimental with a randomised posttest-only control group design method. The object of this study was 30 white rats (Rattus norvegicus strain Wistar) which were divided into five groups (K-, K+, P1, P2, and P3). Lead acetate was given as much as 40 mg/kgBW in groups K+, P1, P2, P3 orally for 30 days. Jamblang (Syzygium cumini) leaf extract was given 50 mg/kgBW in the P1 group, 150 mg/kgBW in the P2 group, and 300 mg/kgBW in the P3 group orally for 30 days. Testosterone levels were examined using blood serum taken through the retro-orbital vein and examined using the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) method. Spermatozoa were taken from the vas deferens and counted using the Neubauer counting chamber. The average level of testosterone serum was at K-2.47 ± 0.59 nmol/ml, K+ 2.23 ± 0.45 nmol/ml, P1 2.35 ± 0.65 nmol/ml, P2 2.56 ± 0 .73 nmol/ml, P3 1.96 ± 0.59 nmol/ml, there was no significant difference statistically (p > 0.05). The average concentration of spermatozoa at K-32.06 ± 2.66 million/ml, K+ 19.45 ± 8.07 million/ml, P1 27.05 ± 1.89 million/ml, P2 28.65 ± 1.10 million/ml, P3 27.11 ± 5.64 million/ml, statistically there was a significant difference (p < 0.05). There was no effect of giving jamblang (Syzygium cumini) leaf extract on testosterone serum levels and there was an effect of giving jamblang (Syzygium cumini) leaf extract on the concentration of spermatozoa of male Rattus norvegicus rats intoxicated with lead acetate. Keywords: lead acetate, jamblang leaf extract, testosterone, spermatozoa

Gallic Acid-Based Hydrogels for Phloretin Intestinal Release: A Promising Strategy to Reduce Oxidative Stress in Chronic Diabetes.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia caused by abnormalities in insulin secretion and/or action. In patients with diabetes, complications such as blindness, delayed wound healing, erectile dysfunction, renal failure, heart disease, etc., are generally related to an increase in ROS levels which, when activated, trigger hyperglycemia-induced lesions, inflammation and insulin resistance. In fact, extensive cell damage and death occurs mainly due to the effect that ROS exerts at the level of cellular constituents, causing the deterioration of DNA and peroxidation of proteins and lipids. Furthermore, elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and an imbalance of redox levels in diabetic patients produce insulin resistance. These destructive effects can be controlled by the defense network of antioxidants of natural origin such as phloretin and gallic acid. For this reason, the objective of this work was to create a nanocarrier (hydrogel) based on gallic acid containing phloretin to increase the antioxidant effect of the two substances which function as fundamental for reducing the mechanisms linked to oxidative stress in patients suffering from chronic diabetes. Furthermore, since the bioavailability problems of phloretin at the intestinal level are known, this carrier could facilitate its release and absorption. The obtained hydrogel was characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Its degree of swelling (a%) and phloretin release were tested under pH conditions simulating the gastric and intestinal environment (1.2, 6.8 and 7.4). The antioxidant activity, inhibiting lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomal membranes induced in vitro by a free radical source, was evaluated for four hours. All results showed that gallate hydrogel could be applied for releasing intestinal phloretin and reducing the ROS levels.

Ability of Selected Monoterpenes to Reduce Fe(III) Ions Being Pro-Neurodegenerative Factors: Tests Based on a FRAP Reaction Extended to 48 Hours.

Monoterpenes are secondary plant metabolites, and such volatile compounds have antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, and enzyme inhibitory properties. These compounds are also able to reduce the potentially pro-neurodegenerative trace metal ions that can be sources of free radicals. One basic method used to evaluate the ability of chemical compounds to reduce Fe(III) is FRAP. To date, most studies based on a FRAP assay were performed within several dozen minutes. However, taking into account the diversity of compounds, it is justified to observe their activity over a much longer period of time. The present study aimed to observe the activity of isopulegol, γ-terpinene, α-terpinene, linalool, carvone, citral, and α-phellandrene over a 48 h period. Our study indicates that the lengthened reaction period enhanced activity from several dozen to several hundred percent. The obtained results also revealed an explicit high correlation of the increase in the activity of compounds with the increase in monoterpene concentration. Due to the hydrophobic character of monoterpenes, the FRAP method was modified by the addition of Tween 20. The highest activity was obtained for α-terpinene and γ-terpinene.

Effect of lipoic acid on the expression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease-associated genes in the liver of rats fed a hypercaloric choline-deficient diet

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most common chronic liver pathologies. Molecular mechanisms of NAFLD pathogenesis are complex and still require further clarification. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the impact of lipoic acid (LA), widely used as an antioxidant, on the development of different links of NAFLD, including de novo lipogenesis, antioxidant and xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes by gene expression analysis. The experiment was carried out on three groups of male Wistar rats received control diet, hypercaloric choline-deficient diet (HCCD) or HCCD with LA (HCCD+LA). In the liver of rats the expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (Acaca), fatty acid synthase (Fasn), stearoyl-CoA desaturase (Scd) and transcriptional regulators sterol-regulatory element-binding protein SREBP (Srebf1), carbohydrate response element-binding protein ChREBP (Mlxipl), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha PPARα (Ppara), heme oxygenase-1 HO-1 (Hmox1) and nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 Nrf2 (Nrf2), cytochrome P450 1A1 CYP1A1 (CYP1A1) and aryl hydrocarbon receptor AhR (AhR), cytochrome P450 2E1 CYP2E1 (CYP2E1) genes were evaluated. Supplementation of HCCD with LA led to an even greater than in HCCD group decrease in Scd gene expression by 88% (p<0.05), as well as a marked suppression of Ppara and Mlxipl by 37% (p<0.05) and 27% (p<0.05), to an 80% (p<0.05) elevation of Hmox1 gene expression relative to the HCCD group, had no pronounced effect on CYP1A1 and AhR gene expression but resulted in a 38% (p<0.05) suppression of CYP2E1 expression compared with that slightly elevated by HCCD. In conclusion, the current study showed that LA reduces lipogenesis de novo, restores the expression of Hmox1 gene of the antioxidant enzyme HO-1, diminished by the HCCD diet, and decreases HCCD-induced level of the expression of CYP2E1 gene of CYP2E1 enzyme, a potential source of free radicals.

Assessing the effect of solvent extraction on the antioxidant activity of Polystichum acrostichoides and Adiantum lunulatum aerial parts: A comparative study

Introduction and Aim: Free radicals have been established detrimental effects on human health, mostly because of oxidative stress. Antioxidants are essential in reducing these effects and protecting cells from oxidative damage. As a result, there is rising interest in finding natural antioxidants. In this work, Polystichum acrostichoides and Adiantum lunulatum aerial parts, both widely utilized in medical systems for their therapeutic effects and as sources of free radicals, were examined to see how solvent extraction affected their antioxidant activity.
 
 Materials and Methods: In both plants' methanolic and hexane extracts, the amounts of phenolic and flavonoid compounds were measured. Utilizing the ABTS, DPPH, and hydroxyl radical scavenging tests, the antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated.
 
 Results: In both plant species, the methanolic extracts had higher phenolic and flavonoid contents than the hexane extracts. Notably, the ABTS, DPPH, and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays revealed that the methanol extract had the best antioxidant potency. On the other hand, there was no apparent antioxidant action in the hexane extracts.
 
 Conclusion: The results suggest that the aerial parts of Polystichum acrostichoides and Adiantum lunulatum could be effective sources of antioxidants. In the ABTS, DPPH, and hydroxyl radical scavenging experiments, the methanolic extracts had reduced IC50 values, which indicated that they had considerable antioxidant activity. These results demonstrate the potential of these ferns in the creation of innovative treatments for a range of oxidative stress-related diseases.

Plant-sourced Antioxidants in Human Health: A State-of-Art Review

Abstract: Nowadays, free radical chemistry is a field that has gained the wider attention of researchers. Our body generates free radicals’ reactive nitrogen and oxygen species through subjection to several pathological states, endogenous systems, and physicochemical conditions. For the physiological state to occur, it is compulsory to propel a balance between antioxidants and free radicals. Oxidative stress will set in when free radicals can no longer be regulated in the body system. Moreover, free radicals negatively affect DNA, protein, and lipids and cause many diseases in the human body. Thus, natural-sourced antioxidants can be used to manage this oxidative stress. Currently, it has been revealed that some synthetic antioxidants, including butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene, are hazardous to human health. Therefore, many efforts have been made in search of natural, non-toxic, and effective compounds that possess anti- oxidative properties. Hence, this review comprehensively presents the roles of plant-based antioxidants in resolving the challenging issues associated with free radical diseases in human beings. It further reviews the characteristics and occurrences of free radicals in the human body, the formation and mechanism of free radicals, some of the physiological impacts of free radicals on human health, sources of free radicals, and plant-sourced antioxidants as a frontier in managing free radicals.

The Treatment of Parkinson's Disease with Sodium Oxybate.

Sodiun Oxybate (SO) has a number of attributes that may mitigate the metabolic stress on the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) dopaminergic (DA) neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD). These neurons function at the borderline of energy sufficiency. SO is metabolized to succinate and supplies energy to the cell by generating ATP. SO is a GABAB agonist and, as such, also arrests the high energy requiring calcium pace-making activity of these neurons. In addition, blocking calcium entry impedes the synaptic release and subsequent neurotransmission of aggregated synuclein species. As DA neurons degenerate, a homeostatic failure exposes these neurons to glutamate excitotoxicity, which in turn accelerates the damage. SO inhibits the neuronal release of glutamate and blocks its agonistic actions. Most important, SO generates NADPH, the cell's major antioxidant cofactor. Excessive free radical production within DA neurons and even more so within activated microglia are early and key features of the degenerative process that are present long before the onset of motor symptoms. NADPH maintains cell glutathione levels and alleviates oxidative stress and its toxic consequences. SO, a histone deacetylase inhibitor also suppresses the expression of microglial NADPH oxidase, the major source of free radicals in Parkinson brain. The acute clinical use of SO at night has been shown to reduce daytime sleepiness and fatigue in patients with PD. With long-term use, its capacity to supply energy to DA neurons, impede synuclein transmission, block excitotoxicity and maintain an anti-oxidative redox environment throughout the night may delay the onset of PD and slow its progress.

The effect of Callina papaya (Carica papaya L. var. Callina) leaves extract on histopathology of kidney and liver in cigarette smoke-exposed rats (Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout, 1769)

Cigarette smoke is a source of free radicals that can cause oxidative stress that damages organ systems in the body. The study aimed to determine the protective effect of Callina papaya leaves ethanol extract on the histopathology of the kidneys and liver in cigarette smoke exposed rats. The study used 25 male rats divided into five groups, consisting of control (distilled water), negative control (exposed to cigarette smoke/ECS), P1 (ECS and given 100 mg/kg body weight (BW) extract), P2 (ECS and given 200 mg/Kg BW extract), and P3 (ECS and given 300 mg/kg BW extract) for 21 days. On the 22nd day, rats were sacrificed to take kidneys and liver for histopathological preparation. Observation parameters consists of organ index, and histopathology structure. All data were then analyzed using one-way ANOVA with Duncan's pos hoc test (P<0.05). The results showed no significant differences in organ index, glomerular number, and liver central vein area (P>0.05). Inflammation area, necrosis cells number, diameter, and area of glomerulus in kidney at doses of 200 mg/Kg BW and 300 mg/Kg BW showed improvement compared to other treatments (P>0.05). Hepatocyte area, sinusoid diameter, inflammatory area, number of hydropic degeneration cells, and number of necrosis cells in the liver also showed improvement at doses of 200 mg/kg BW and 300 mg/kg BW compared to other treatments (P>0.05). The conclusion shows that the Callina papaya leaves ethanol extract can protect against kidney and liver damage in rats exposed to cigarette smoke.

Involvement of oxidative stress in placental dysfunction, the pathophysiology of fetal death and pregnancy disorders.

Placental oxidative stress contributes to both normal and abnormal placentation during pregnancy. This review discusses the potential consequence of oxidative stress-induced placental dysfunction on pregnancies complicated by fetal death and pregnancies with a high risk of fetal death. The placenta is a source of reactive oxygen free radicals due to the oxidative metabolism required to meet the demands of the growing fetus. The placenta has an array of efficient antioxidant defense systems to deal with rising oxidative stress created by free radicals during pregnancy. Properly controlled physiological (low-level) free radical production is a necessary part of cellular signaling pathways and downstream activities during normal placental development; however, poorly controlled oxidative stress can cause aberrant placentation, immune disturbances and placental dysfunction. Abnormal placental function and immune disturbances are linked to many pregnancy-related disorders, including early and recurrent pregnancy loss, fetal death, spontaneous preterm birth, preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction. This review discusses the role of placental oxidative stress in both normal and pathological settings. Finally, based on previously published work, this review presents multiple lines of evidence for the strong association between oxidative stress and adverse pregnancy outcomes, including fetal death and pregnancies with a high risk of fetal death.

Efficacy of Ipomoea batatas L. anthocyanin in reducing mammary Malondialdehyde levels in female rats exposed to tobacco smoke

Objectives: Tobacco smoke is one source of free radicals that can enter the body through the respiratory tract and circulate through the bloodstream to reach all organs in the body. Purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) anthocyanin is a potentially powerful antioxidant that reduces free radicals. This study aims to demonstrate that purple sweet potato anthocyanin can reduce mammary gland malondialdehyde concentrations in female white rats (Rattus norvegicus) exposed to tobacco smoke. Methods: This was experimental research with a randomized post-test control group. Thirty female white rats were used in this study. These samples were then divided into two control groups (negative control group - no exposure to tobacco smoke and anthocyanin; positive control group - exposure to tobacco smoke only -) and three exposure groups of exposure to cigarette smoke at a rate of two sticks/day and variety Anthocyanin doses for eight weeks. The malondialdehyde content of the mammary gland was measured spectrophotometrically. Results: The result showed that the higher dose of Ipomoea batatas L anthocyanin administered, the lower the MDA level in the breasts of rats exposed to cigarette smoke (ANOVA test, p-value = 0.002) Conclusions: Ipomoea batatas L. anthocyanin can decrease the concentration of mammary gland malondialdehyde in female rats exposed to tobacco smoke.

BIOLOGICAL ROLE OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES IN MITOCHONDRIA

This article focuses on the sources of free radicals in the mitochondria and the specifi city of mitochondrial antioxidant enzymes. In recent years, оxidative stress is associated with many human diseases, including: cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, and kidney and liver disorders, a wide range of infl ammatory-r elated diseases, cancer, diabetes mellitus. Mitochondria, as the major ATP producer and the major reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant producer exert a crucial role within the cell metabolism. And mitochondria represent an important target for oxidative damage, which can lead to the death of mitochondria and cell, because damaged mitochondria produce increasingly more (ROS). Produced ROS often activate local pools of redox- sensitive enzymes of protective signaling pathways and may directly infl uence cell viability. However, there are also enzymatic and non-enzymatic components of the antioxidant mitochondrial system that help in controlling the oxidant- antioxidant system. Moreover, mitochondrial damage and increased level of free radicals might provide one of the important biomarkers for monitoring diff erent disease progression.

Leaves are a Source of Biogenic Persistent Free Radicals.

Nonsenescent and senescent leaves of selected coniferous and broadleaf plants contained substantial levels of naturally occurring persistent free radicals (PFRs). These biogenic PFRs (BPFRs) were stable and persistent despite multiple wetting and drying cycles, implying that BPFRs can leach and sorb on soil particles. Results suggest that endogenous chemicals in plants and their transformation byproducts can stabilize unpaired electrons in leaves under ambient conditions. Thus, the vast amount and perpetual supply of leaf litter is an unaccounted natural source of BPFRs. If toxic, inhaling and accidentally ingesting fine soil dust and powder from degraded leaf litter may increase our environmental and health burdens to PFRs. We expect that this finding will generate more studies on natural sources of PFRs, establish their properties, and distinguish them from those formed from combustion and thermal processes.