Command Source Research Articles

Investigating Mother Tongue Effect In The Acquisition Of English Prepositions By Indonesia-Speaking Learners

The process of learning prepositions gets complicated most notably for learners of English as foreign language (EFL) because they encounter challenges in grasping the manifold meanings and dissimilar contextual applications. This study is aimed at identifying the sources of the difficulty that Indonesia learners of English undergo in learning preposition. To this end, a multiple-choice test was designed to gather data regarding the problems of acquiring and learning English prepositions by UNIRA students of English. The test comprised of fifteen questions. Each of the students was supposed to choice the best possible answer out of the choices from a list with the correct English preposition. In this study, method research design used is qualitative. The results suggest that the students meet considerable difficulties in using English prepositions. The students highly depend on their mother tongue, i.e. Indonesia language, which poses a source of command that enables the students in producing inappropriateness of preposition use.

IOT Network Automation Implementation in Router Configuration Handling

IOT Network Automation Implementation in Router Configuration Handling

“Thy Words Do Finde Me Out”: Aaron Kunin’s Love Three

“Thy Words Do Finde Me Out”: Aaron Kunin’s <i>Love Three</i>

Mobile-Based Application: The Designation of Energy Saving Smart Light System for Monitoring and Controlling

&lt;p class="0abstract"&gt;The use of lights are the command sources in our life, anytime and everywhere. On trending of demands, the alternative sources are important to increase the satisfaction on user requirement. While, saving energy is another issue to be considered on the light system designation. Therefore, this research provides the details on the implementation of the smart lamp with controlled light system based on Arduino and mobile application usage to save the energy. Smart lamp is a finest way to minimize and preserve light with the remote system in order to monitor and control the brightness of light. This research is created to design the energy saving smart light system via mobile application and devices. It is a minor prototype that is fully automated and controlled by Arduino board. The designation begin with identification of input of LDR sensor, PIR sensor and circuit setting. Next, the integration of hardware and software is implemented for Arduino program, mobile application and the devices. Lastly, the testing process is executed and the data is collected and analysed. The overall system has been experimentally validated with the scenario as setup. Through monitoring and controlling the light in such a way is always accurately matched to the actual need that allows to save on the energy usage and costs, as well as to improve the human comfort and efficiency.&lt;/p&gt;

Human performance in three-hands tasks

The successful completion of complex tasks like hanging a picture or laparoscopic surgery requires coordinated motion of more than two limbs. User-controlled supernumerary robotic limbs (SL) have been proposed to bypass the need for coordination with a partner in such tasks. However, neither the capability to control multiple limbs alone relative to collaborative control with partners, nor how that capability varies across different tasks, is well understood. In this work, we present an investigation of tasks requiring three-hands where the foot was used as an additional source of motor commands. We considered: (1) how does simultaneous control of three hands compare to a cooperating dyad; (2) how this relative performance was altered by the existence of constraints emanating from real or virtual physical connections (mechanical constraints) or from cognitive limits (cognitive constraints). It was found that a cooperating dyad outperformed a single user in all scenarios in terms of task score, path efficiency and motion smoothness. However, while the participants were able to reach more targets with increasing mechanical constraints/decreasing number of simultaneous goals, the relative difference in performance between a dyad and a participant performing trimanual activities decreased, suggesting further potential for SLs in this class of scenario.

Compliance behaviour from the holistic human nature perspective

PurposePrevious studies on tax compliance have not internally failed to consider why individuals avoid tax payments. The purpose of this paper is to explore the compliance behaviour of Indonesian taxpayers from holistic human nature perspectives including their rational, social and spiritual values.Design/methodology/approachThis paper adopts the tabayyun approach, an interpretive conceptualised methodology using Islamic knowledge to explore taxpayers' rational, social and spiritual realities.FindingsTax compliance is influenced by holistic factors: personal economic rational, social consensus and spiritual beliefs. Rational taxpayers distrust tax authority and see tax payments as an economic decision (i.e. costs and benefits) that reduces/increases wealth. So, they tend to avoid or reconfigure payments. Opposite to economic rationally is the societal pressure upon taxpayers to converge to being an acceptable citizen with legitimate businesses. Under this view, no mistrust against tax authority exists. As for the spiritual factor, tax payments are seen as religious duties like zakat that ought to be paid for achieving spiritual alleviation.Research limitations/implicationsDue to the research approach, this study results may lack generalisation. Future research can expand broader understanding of religious belief in corporation with compliance behaviour.Practical implicationsIn the tax policy context, this study recommends to take into consideration religious levy being included in the tax system. This study also argues substituting tax with zakat. In Indonesia, religious levy takes more essential roles in the spiritual domain rather than economical domain.Social implicationsIt is difficult to expect tax compliance to be an internal compliance because the source of the command is of an external origin. It is considered as a new concept of wealth distribution that comes from an internal attribute. For states that have religious population as Indonesia, religious values become communal bonds that more dominantly form self-identity at both physical and mental levels. Hence, it is very essential for the state to consider the inclusion of religious values or teachings to the regulation, if the state wants such regulation to be adhered significantly by people. The collection instrument whose bonds originated in religious moral/spiritual values can raise the awareness and compliance voluntarily because the command source is internal and autonomous.Originality/valueThis study fills the gaps in the taxation literature by incorporating a spiritual perspective, instead of rational and social domains.

Faith, Recognition, and Community

This article looks at “faith-in” and what Jonathan Kvanvig calls the “belittler objection” by comparing Hegel and Kierkegaard’s interpretations of Abram (later known as Abraham). I first argue that Hegel’s treatment of Abram in Spirit of Christianity and its Fate is an objection to faith-in. Building on this from additional Hegelian texts, I argue that Hegel’s objection arises from his social command account of morality. I then turn to Johannes de Silentio’s treatments of Abraham in Fear and Trembling and Søren Kierkegaard’s Works of Love to argue that Kierkegaard defends faith-in as part of a moderate divine command account of moral knowledge. Finally, this article concludes that the belittler objection is ultimately an objection to faith-in as a divine command source of moral knowledge or obligation rather than a social command source.

The Holocaust and Humanity

The Holocaust and Humanity

Characterization of Volitional Electromyographic Signals in the Lower Extremity After Motor Complete Spinal Cord Injury

Background. Previous studies have demonstrated the presence of intact axons across a spinal cord lesion, even in those clinically diagnosed with complete spinal cord injury (SCI). These axons may allow volitional motor signals to be transmitted through the injury, even in the absence of visible muscle contraction. Objective. To demonstrate the presence of volitional electromyographic (EMG) activity below the lesion in motor complete SCI and to characterize this activity to determine its value for potential use as a neuroprosthetic command source. Methods. Twenty-four subjects with complete (AIS A or B), chronic, cervical SCI were tested for the presence of volitional below-injury EMG activity. Surface electrodes recorded from 8 to 12 locations of each lower limb, while participants were asked to attempt specific movements of the lower extremity in response to visual and audio cues. EMG trials were ranked through visual inspection, and were scored using an amplitude threshold algorithm to identify channels of interest with volitional motor unit activity. Results. Significant below-injury muscle activity was identified through visual inspection in 16 of 24 participants, and visual inspection rankings were well correlated to the algorithm scoring. Conclusions. The surface EMG protocol utilized here is relatively simple and noninvasive, ideal for a clinical screening tool. The majority of subjects tested were able to produce a volitional EMG signal below their injury level, and the algorithm developed allows automatic identification of signals of interest. The presence of this volitional activity in the lower extremity could provide an innovative new command signal source for implanted neuroprostheses or other assistive technology.

Case study: Head orientation and neck electromyography for cursor control in persons with high cervical tetraplegia

We evaluated the ability of an individual with a high cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) to control a cursor on a computer screen using two different user interfaces: (1) head movements measured via a head-mounted orientation sensor and (2) electromyography (EMG) signals from four head and neck muscles acquired using a 4-channel implanted upper-limb neuroprosthesis that had been deployed in an earlier study. The subject moved the cursor to a set of targets on the screen in a two-dimensional, center-out, target-acquisition task, and his performance was evaluated with a variety of performance measures to assess both position and velocity control accuracy. The subject's performance with both command sources was also compared with the performance of a group of nondisabled subjects. Head orientation provided more accurate performance but was less responsive than EMG. Both command sources showed some directionally dependent performance, with movement to diagonally located targets being performed by a series of sequential motions rather than via straight paths. Overall, the SCI subject's performance with each command source was similar to that reported for a nondisabled population using the same interfaces and performing the same task.

Evaluation of head orientation and neck muscle EMG signals as three-dimensional command sources.

BackgroundHigh cervical spinal cord injuries result in significant functional impairments and affect both the injured individual as well as their family and care givers. To help restore function to these individuals, multiple user interfaces are available to enable command and control of external devices. However, little work has been performed to assess the 3D performance of these interfaces.MethodsWe investigated the performance of eight human subjects in using three user interfaces (head orientation, EMG from muscles of the head and neck, and a three-axis joystick) to command the endpoint position of a multi-axis robotic arm within a 3D workspace to perform a novel out-to-center 3D Fitts’ Law style task. Two of these interfaces (head orientation, EMG from muscles of the head and neck) could realistically be used by individuals with high tetraplegia, while the joystick was evaluated as a standard of high performance. Performance metrics were developed to assess the aspects of command source performance. Data were analyzed using a mixed model design ANOVA. Fixed effects were investigated between sources as well as for interactions between index of difficulty, command source, and the five performance measures used. A 5% threshold for statistical significance was used in the analysis.ResultsThe performances of the three command interfaces were rather similar, though significant differences between command sources were observed. The apparent similarity is due in large part to the sequential command strategy (i.e., one dimension of movement at a time) typically adopted by the subjects. EMG-based commands were particularly pulsatile in nature. The use of sequential commands had a significant impact on each command source’s performance for movements in two or three dimensions.ConclusionsWhile the sequential nature of the commands produced by the user did not fit with Fitts’ Law, the other performance measures used were able to illustrate the properties of each command source. Though pulsatile, given the overall similarity between head orientation and the EMG interface, (which also could be readily included in a future implanted neuroprosthesis) the use of EMG as a command source for controlling an arm in 3D space is an attractive choice.

Inhibition of the primary motor cortex can alter one's “sense of effort”: Effects of low-frequency rTMS

Studies using force-matching tasks have suggested that when we feel a “sense of effort,” cortical regions may act to increase motor commands, and thus recruit additional motor units, in order to compensate for the exerted force. We hypothesized that suppressing activity in the primary motor cortex (M1), which is the source of the motor commands, would initiate the same process, and induce the same sense of effort. In a force-matching task, grip force was applied to ‘right’ hand and 10 healthy participants were asked to try to exert the same amount by using ‘left’ hand, with no visual feedback. On some trials, low-frequency, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (lf-rTMS) was used to suppress the M1 and the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) in the left hemisphere, separately. Results showed that participants tended to overestimate the level of exerted force by up to 24%. In contrast, sham stimulation of the M1 and lf-rTMS over the SI did not significantly affect participants’ estimations. Further, the M1 suppression resulted in a 42% reduction in motor-evoked potentials. Thus, the M1 suppression can affect our sense of effort, suggesting that compensatory neural mechanisms that increase the MI activity may play an important role in producing senses of effort.

Loss of independent limb control in childhood hemiparesis is related to time of brain injury onset

This study investigated the presence of inter-limb activity at the elbow joint in individuals with childhood-onset hemiparesis, including spontaneous mirror movements during unilateral tasks and the ability to suppress them during bilateral tasks. Eighteen individuals with hemiparesis were divided into three categories of injury timing: before birth (PRE-natal), around the time of birth (PERI-natal), and after 6months of age (POST-natal). Individuals with hemiparesis, as well as 12 typically developing peers, participated in unilateral and bilateral elbow flexion and extension tasks completed at maximal and submaximal effort while muscle activity was monitored and motor output was quantified by two multiple degrees-of-freedom load cells. Significantly, higher levels of paretic elbow flexion were found only in the PRE- and PERI-natal groups during the flexion of the non-paretic limb, which was modulated by effort level in both unilateral and bilateral tasks. The bilateral activation of elbow flexors in the PRE-/PERI-natal groups indicates potential use of a common cortical command source to drive both upper extremities, while the POST-natal/typically developing groups' flexors appear to receive input from different supraspinal structures.

Mechatronic Control System on a Finite-State Machine

This paper describes design using state-transition methodology. This state-transition methodology is straightforward, with a simply-perceived relation between the programming and the corresponding sequential function. The current operational function of the system is described as the current state of the system using state-transition programming. The state transition diagram or table describes the current state and the conditions for transition. The operation is transferred to a corresponding destination state when a set of conditions become valid for leaving the current state. Thus, the sequential operation is explicit, and any continuous conditions scanning (from command source and sensors) only include those that are pertinent for leaving the current state. The methodology is highly-structured and efficient, the programming tasks are readily comprehensible, and fault diagnostics can be easily included within the program's structure. The presented application of an automatic sliding-door illustrates the feasibility of this approach. This paper presents the MFSM (Modular Finite-State Machine), the ECA (Event-Condition-Action) system, motion generation, motion control with load estimation, and an example of a DSP (Digital Signal Processor) system. The limitations and attributes of each technique are discussed, and a state-table format is presented with the capability of representing parallel asynchronous sequential processes.

CONNECTIVITY MAPPING OF HUMAN BRAIN BY PHASE BASED EVOLUTION MAP APPROACH

Electrocorticography (ECoG) is recorded directly on the exposed surface of cortex, and directional connectivity mapping of ECoG signal was proved essential in the definition of epileptogenic zones, and besides, could also be one kind of command source for Brain-Machine Interface (BMI) controlling. In this study, brain connectivity was evaluated and represented by directionality index, which was computed by phase based evolution map approach (EMA). In simulation study, directionality index and its short time correction were compared. The result showed that corrected algorithm had smaller variance and was more reasonable in cascade signal ensembles study. We applied this method to hand movement related human ECoG data, the primary motor cortex is found to have higher driving during the hand open-close movement onset than the baseline. By the experiments, the method could be further used to explore the alteration of information transfer and neural circuits during movement and could be the source for BMI tasks.

Nonlinear analysis of electromyogram following gait training with myoelectrically triggered neuromuscular electrical stimulation in stroke survivors

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) facilitates ambulatory function after paralysis by activating the muscles of the lower extremities. The NMES-assisted stepping can either be triggered by a heel-switch (switch-trigger), or by an electromyogram (EMG)-based gait event detector (EMG-trigger). The command sources—switch-trigger or EMG-trigger—were presented to each group of six chronic (>6 months post-stroke) hemiplegic stroke survivors. The switch-trigger group underwent transcutaneous NMES-assisted gait training for 1 h, five times a week for 2 weeks, where the stimulation of the tibialis anterior muscle of the paretic limb was triggered with a heel-switch detecting heel-rise of the same limb. The EMG-trigger group underwent transcutaneous NMES-assisted gait training of the same duration and frequency where the stimulation was triggered with surface EMG from medial gastrocnemius (MG) of the paretic limb in conjunction with a heel-switch detecting heel-rise of the same limb. During the baseline and post-intervention surface EMG assessment, a total of 10 s of surface EMG was recorded from bilateral MG muscle while the subjects tried to stand steady on their toes. A nonlinear tool—recurrence quantification analysis (RQA)—was used to analyze the surface EMG. The objective of this study was to find the effect of NMES-assisted gait training with switch-trigger or EMG-trigger on two RQA parameters—the percentage of recurrence (%Rec) and determinism (%Det), which were extracted from surface EMG during fatiguing contractions of the paretic muscle. The experimental results showed that during fatiguing contractions, (1) %Rec and %Det have a higher initial value for paretic muscle than the non-paretic muscle, (2) the rate of change in %Rec and %Det was negative for the paretic muscle but positive for the non-paretic muscle, (3) the rate of change in %Rec and %Det significantly increased from baseline for the paretic muscle after EMG-triggered NMES-assisted gait training. Therefore, the study showed an improvement in paretic muscle function during a fatiguing task following gait training with EMG-triggered NMES. This study also showed that RQA parameters—%Rec and %Det—were sensitive to changes in paretic/non-paretic muscle properties due to gait training and can be used for non-invasive muscle monitoring in stroke survivors undergoing rehabilitation.

Devolving Power to Sub-State Groups

1. Liberal States and the Problem of Calls for DevolutionWe Uve in a world of states: a world in which die dominant form of persisting structure for the wielding of political power is characterized by territorially concentrated power exercised through political institutions that exert sovereign control in the sense of being able to exclusively command compliance.1 Within such a world, calls for reorganization of the way these institutions are organized so as to devolve power to groups oppressed or marginalized within existing structures are inevitable.For proponents of liberal states, such calls for devolving power pose a problem. Proponents of Uberai states are committed to the possibility of reforming or reorganizing states so that die exercise of poUtical power through institutions that encompass the entire territory can rightly command compliance from everyone within its jurisdiction. When substate groups call for a reorganization in which power is devolved rather than reformed, they seem to deny that it is possible for institutions that encompass the entire territory to rightly command compliance from the groups' members at least. Calls for devolution imply that within some portions of the state's territory, or for certain of the state's inhabitants, state-level political institutions cannot rightfully command compliance, or at least, cannot do so exclusively.Proponents of liberal states might respond to this problem by letting go of the need for exclusive command. This would require the development of models of liberal states or other structures for wielding political power that are compatible with a pluraUty of sources of rightful commands for compliance at least some of which are horizontally rather than vertically related. Avery Kolers's theory of territorial rights, Margaret Moore's emphasis of jurisdictional authority, and Ayelet Shachar 's concept of joint governance may be read as steps toward developing such models.2However, for many proponents of liberal states, the prospect of a competing source of rightful command that may assert priority over decision making that applies to the entire territory is impractical, and conceptually difficult to sustain.3 An alternative response, one that preserves the pre-eminent position of institutions that encompass the state's entire territory and population, is to insist that such institutions have a vital role in ensuring that the decision making of sub-state groups meets minimal conditions of moral equality and respect for human rights. Reserving these powers for state officials is argued to be unproblematic insofar as even groups who might legitimately reject state-level political institutions as rightfully commanding compUance in many or even most spheres of life must accept the requirement that policies be developed and applied in a way that preserves individual members' moral equality and respects and secures their basic human rights.4 Given this, state-level political institations may rightfully compel all individuals living within a territory to observe minimal standards of political equality and respect for human rights, even those who may plausibly claim to be exempt from rightful command by such institations in other regards in virtue of their membership in an oppressed or marginalized nonstate group. Regardless of the grounds on which a sub-state group calls for devolution of power, political institations at the level of the state may legitimately compel compliance with directives aimed at securing the moral equaUty and human rights of the group's membership; and so states may legitimately reserve to themselves powers of oversight or remedy in relation to groups calling for power to be devolved.Emphasizing the role of institations that encompass the entire territory in guaranteeing minimal conditions of moral equality and respect for human rights seems promising, but it cannot provide a satisfactory account of the desirability of empowering state officials to exercise powers of oversight, and so it cannot justify reserving such powers in the face of calls for power to be devolved. …

A Novel Command Signal for Motor Neuroprosthetic Control

Background. Neuroprostheses can restore functions such as hand grasp or standing to individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) using electrical stimulation to elicit movements in paralyzed muscles. Implanted neuroprostheses currently use electromyographic (EMG) activity from muscles above the lesion that remain under volitional control as a command input. Systems in development use a networked approach and will allow for restoration of multiple functions but will require additional command signals to control the system, especially in individuals with high-level tetraplegia. Objective. The objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using muscles innervated below the injury level as command sources for a neuroprosthesis. Recent anatomical and physiological studies have demonstrated the presence of intact axons across the lesion, even in those diagnosed with a clinically complete SCI; hence, EMG activity may be present in muscles with no sign of movement. Methods. Twelve participants with motor complete SCI were enrolled and EMG was recorded with surface electrodes from 8 muscles below the knee in each leg. Results. Significant activity was evident in 89% of the 192 muscles studied during attempted movements of the foot and lower limb. At least 2 muscles from each participant were identified as potential command signals for a neuroprosthesis based on 2-state, threshold classification. Conclusions. Results suggest that voluntary activity is present and recordable in below lesion muscles even after clinically complete SCI.

A Wearable, Wireless Gaze Tracker with Integrated Selection Command Source for Human‐Computer Interaction

A light-weight, wearable, wireless gaze tracker with integrated selection command source for human-computer interaction is introduced. The prototype system combines head-mounted, video-based gaze tracking with capacitive facial movement detection that enable multimodal interaction by gaze pointing and making selections with facial gestures. The system is targeted mainly to disabled people with limited mobility over their hands. The hardware was made wireless to remove the need to take off the device when moving away from the computer, and to allow future use in more mobile contexts. The algorithms responsible for determining the eye and head orientations to map gaze direction to on-screen coordinates are presented together with the one to detect movements from the measured capacitance signal. Point-and-click experiments were conducted to assess the performance of the multimodal system. The results show decent performance in laboratory and office conditions. The overall point-and-click accuracy in the multimodal experiments is comparable to the errors in previous research on head-mounted, single modality gaze tracking that does not compensate for changes in head orientation.

Overestimation of force during matching of externally generated forces

If a weight is applied to a finger and the subject asked to produce the same force, the subject generates a force larger than the weight. That is, subjects overestimate the force applied by an external target when matching it. Details of this force overestimation are not well understood. We show that subjects overestimate small target weights, but not larger ones. Furthermore we show for the first time that the force overestimation consists of two components. The first component is a constant. The second component depends on the precise magnitude of the weight and is only present when subjects hold the target weight against gravity. We suggest that the two components are generated in different phases of the force-matching task, are due to different processes, and must have an influence on all proprioceptive judgements of force.