Sounding Rocket Research Articles

Current usage of sounding rockets to study the upper atmosphere

Sounding rockets have played and continue to play a key role in the modeling of the upper atmosphere and predicting weather. Goddard’s insight into the usefulness of rockets for this application came at a time when measurements had not been made above the troposphere. Present-day developments in sounding rockets have allowed more elaborate experiments to make measurements with multiple rockets and ejected subpayloads allowing for in situ spatial and temporal measurements of the upper atmosphere, thus contributing to our understanding of both terrestrial weather and space weather.

A Puzzling Quasi‐Periodic Variability in the Tropical Middle Atmosphere

AbstractThe Quasi‐Biennial Oscillation and the Semiannual Oscillation have been identified to be the leading modes of variability in the tropical middle atmosphere. With reanalysis data and independent rocket soundings from a low latitude site, we report the existence of yet another variability in the tropical lower mesosphere which is primarily evident as easterly bursts in zonal winds during the months of May‐July. It occurs with a variable interval of 2–5 yrs in the late 20th century and 7–9 yrs in the early 21st century. These Quasi‐Periodic Easterly Bursts are found to have remote influences on the Antarctic polar vortex as well as residual circulation in the lower mesosphere. We identify a potential causative mechanism for the easterly bursts that involve enhanced cross equatorial advection of momentum as well as gravity wave drag. A close association with Quasi Biennial Oscillation winds is observed, however, cause of the observed periodicity remains elusive.

Control of a solid fuel rocket using Artificial Intelligence

Abstract This work is about the application of a trajectory control system for a solid-fueled sounding rocket using Neural Networks. The first part consisted of searching for a mathematical model that described the rocket’s behavior in space as accurately as possible. After this, the LQR (Linear Quadratic Regulator) methodology was used to find the control gains ’k’ for subsequent use. Trajectories are proposed for servo motor tracking, to be able to follow a proposed path in the x-z plane.

A statistical boundary for 3D rarefied flows through meshes: implementation to a new version of dsmcFoam+ and wind tunnel validation

AbstractThe Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method has become a standard tool for rarefied aerodynamics and microchannel flows. However, the performance benefits of DSMC, such as adaptive grid sizes and number of particles, are constrained by the need to resolve small geometric details of mesh applications within relatively large simulation volumes. The requirement for a sufficient number of particles in even the smallest cells imposes a significant computational burden. A novel set of cyclic statistical boundary conditions is proposed to address the computational bottleneck associated with simulating micrometre-scale structures prevalent in atmospheric and space research under rarefied flow conditions. These conditions account for the geometric parameters of a geometric mesh and the angular dependency of impacting particles, aiming to alleviate the computational challenges posed by conventional approaches. Validation against wind tunnel measurements demonstrates excellent agreement for one of the implemented boundaries, able to simulate fine meshes for conditions of rocket soundings in the Mesosphere. The newly developed boundary conditions are implemented within the advanced DSMC solver, dsmcFoam+ framework. For this study, the solver is ported from OpenFOAM® version 2.4.0 to the OpenFOAM® version v2306 to leverage recent code developments, particularly in dynamic meshes, load balancing, and barycentric particle tracking. This advancement enhances the capabilities of DSMC simulations, offering improved fidelity and accuracy in capturing rarefied flow phenomena.

A Static Stability Analysis Method for Passively Stabilized Sounding Rockets

Sounding rockets constitute a class of rocket with a generally simple layout, being composed of a cylindrical center-body, a nosecone, a number of fins placed symmetrically around the longitudinal axis (usually three or four), and possibly a boat-tail. This type of flying craft is typically not actively controlled; instead, a passive stabilization effect is obtained through suitable positioning and sizing of the fins. Therefore, in the context of dynamic performance analysis, the margin of static stability is an index of primary interest. However, the classical approach to static stability analysis, which consists in splitting computations in two decoupled domains, namely, around the pitch and yaw axis, provides a very limited insight to the missile performance for this type of vehicle due to the violation of the classical assumptions of planar symmetry and symmetric flight conditions commonly adopted for winged aircraft. To tackle this issue, this paper introduces a method for analyzing static stability through a novel index, capable of more generally assessing the level of static stability for sounding rockets, exploiting the same information on aerodynamic coefficients typically required for more usual (i.e., decoupled) static stability analyses, and suggests a way to assess the validity and shortcoming of the method in each case at hand.

Development and Testing of a Rocket-Based Sensor for Atmospheric Sensing Using an Unmanned Aerial System.

Measurements of the vertical structure of the lower atmosphere are important to the understanding of air quality. Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs, drones) can provide low cost, repeatable measurements of the temperature, pressure, and relative humidity. A set of inexpensive sensors controlled with an Arduino microprocessor board were tested on a UAS against a meteorology grade sensor. Two modes of operation for sampling were tested: a forward moving sampler and a vertical ascent sampler. A small particle sensor (Sensiron SPS30) was integrated and was capable of retrieving vertical aerosol distributions during an inversion event. The thermocouple-based temperature probe and the relative humidity measurement on the Bosch BME280 sensor correlated well with the meteorological sensor. The temperature and relative humidity sensors were then deployed on a rocket sounding platform. The rocket sounding system performed well up to a height of 400 m. The inexpensive sensors were found to perform adequately for low-cost development and uses in education and research.

Design of a Helicopter System Recovery for a Sounding Rocket

In this article, the feasibility of spacecraft recovery using rotary wings is analysed. This technology possesses the ability to perform a safe and controlled landing, allowing the spacecraft to be reused and utilised in missions with different requirements. A computational model that simulates the descent of a sounding rocket was developed. It is based on rotor’s aerodynamic theories and kinematics and computes several rotor parameters that allow the analysis of the system’s performance. The model’s verification was successfully carried out by comparing its behaviour with literature data. To understand how each design parameter influences the system, a parametric study of the rotor design variables was held. It was concluded that the blade’s pitch angle is extremely important for the system’s performance and should be carefully selected, and that weight penalties resultant from excessive blade’s number or radius can be prejudicial. Furthermore, a design optimisation was conducted, aiming to minimise the rocket’s terminal velocity. Finally, a flare manoeuvre was disclosed to reduce the touchdown velocity. This recovery system is concluded to be highly promising, though requiring further work in several fields of study.

Analysis of Atmospheric Elements in Near Space Based on Meteorological-Rocket Soundings over the East China Sea

As an important means of in situ detection in near space, meteorological rockets can provide a high-precision distribution analysis of atmospheric elements. However, there are currently few studies on the principles of meteorological-rocket detection and the application of rocket-sounding data. The purpose of this paper is to fill this gap by providing a detailed introduction to the detection principle of a meteorological rocket launched in the East China Sea in November 2022. Moreover, empirical models, satellite data, and reanalysis data were selected for comparison and verification with the rocket-sounding data. Furthermore, the accuracy of these widely used datasets was studied based on the rocket-sounding data in the near space over the East China Sea. Additionally, gravity-wave power–frequency spectra were extracted using the maximum entropy method from both the rocket-sounding data and the remote-sensing data. Furthermore, the relationship between gravity waves and Kelvin–Helmholtz instability (KHI) was investigated by analyzing the gravity-wave energy and the Richardson number. The research findings indicate that among the remote-sensing data describing the atmospheric environment over the launch site, the COSMIC occultation data is more accurate compared with the SABER data. The wind-field distribution derived from rocket detection is consistent with the Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) reanalysis data, while also providing a more detailed description of the wind field. The main wavelengths of gravity waves extracted from rocket-sounding data are consistently smaller than those obtained from satellite remote-sensing data, indicating that rocket sounding is capable of capturing more intricate structures of gravity waves. The good correspondence between the peaks of gravity-wave energy and the regions where KHI occurs indicates that there is a strong interaction between gravity waves and KHI in the middle atmosphere.

Design Optimization of Fins of a Sounding Rocket for Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio and Minimum Radar Cross- Section Area Using ANSYS

The optimization of a sounding rocket's fins is a crucial part of improving its performance. The geometric optimization of a sounding rocket's fins is presented in this paper. The main goal is to optimize the geometry for the minimum radar cross-section area and maximum lift-to-drag ratio. In CATIA, a 3D model was created. The L/D ratio was maximized using the ANSYS adjoint solver, and the radar cross-section area was minimized using ANSYS optimetrics. To determine the total RCS, the RCS of each fin was determined individually and then added together. Root, leading edge, tip, and trailing edge were the four parameters that were defined for the RCS optimization. The L/D ratio was increased by 8.3 times, and the RCS was decreased by 12% after optimization. Additionally, the body surface can be optimized further. The missile industry can benefit from the paper's findings.

Pulsating Heat Pipe Experiments for Microgravity Sounding Rocket Tests

Two flat plate diffusion-bonded pulsating heat pipes (PHPs) for the thermal management and heat dissipation of concentrated heat flux in electronics applications, such as aboard satellites and spacecraft, were specially developed for future tests aboard a sounding rocket in microgravity conditions. Both devices contain 26 channels with round cross sections, one with ultrasharp lateral grooves in the evaporator. Two heat sinks were tested: a water-cooling bath for the thermal characterization of the PHPs, and a copper box with a phase change material (dodecahydrate bibasic sodium phosphate) to be qualified as the heat storage for future microgravity tests. Water was used as the working fluid. The best filling ratio (relative to the total internal volume of the PHPs) was experimentally determined to be 50%, for which the devices presented the earliest startup and the lowest thermal resistance, around 0.033°C/W for the grooved PHP. This research proposes an efficient and alternative cooling method, the phase change material storage, to be used as a heat sink in future microgravity tests. Also, the microgravity effect on the thermal performance of such PHPs can be assessed by comparing the present results with future microgravity data obtained in an experimental module aboard a sounding rocket.

ADCS Design for a Sounding Rocket with Thrust Vectoring

This paper addresses the development of an attitude determination and control system (ADCS) for a sounding rocket using thrust vector control (TVC). To design the ADCS, a non-linear 6 degrees-of-freedom (DoF) model for the rocket dynamics and kinematics is deduced and implemented in simulation environment. An optimal attitude controller is designed using the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) with an additional integral action (LQI), and relying on the derived linear, time-varying, state-space representation of the rocket. The controller is tested in the simulation environment, demonstrating satisfactory attitude tracking performance, and robustness to model uncertainties. A navigation system is designed, based on measurements available on-board, to provide accurate real-time estimates on the rocket’s state and on the aerodynamic forces and moments acting on the vehicle. These aerodynamic estimates are used by an adaptive version of the controller that computes the gains in real time after correcting the state-space model. Finally, the ADCS is the result of the integration of the attitude control and navigation systems, with the complete system being implemented and tested in simulation, and demonstrating satisfactory performance.

A Spherical Shells Model of Atmospheric Absorption for Instrument Calibration

We present a model for atmospheric absorption of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The initial motivation for this work is to predict this effect and correct it in Sounding Rocket (SR) experiments. In particular, the Full-sun Ultraviolet Rocket Spectrograph (FURST) is anticipated to launch in mid-2023. FURST has the potential to observe UV absorption while imaging solar spectra between 120-181 nm, at a resolution of , and at altitudes of between ≈ 110-255 km. This model uses estimates for density and temperature, as well as laboratory measurements of the absorption cross-section, to predict the UV absorption of solar radiation at high altitudes. Refraction correction is discussed and partially implemented but is negligible for the results presented. Absorption by molecular Oxygen is the primary driver within the UV spectral range of our interest. The model is built with a wide range of applications in mind. The primary result is a method for inversion of the absorption cross-section from images obtained during an instrument flight, even if atmospheric observations were not initially intended. The potential to obtain measurements of atmospheric properties is an exciting prospect, especially since sounding rockets are the only method currently available for probing this altitude in-situ. Simulation of noisy spectral images along the FURST flight profile is performed using data from the High-Resolution Telescope and Spectrograph (HRTS) SR and the FISM2 model for comparison. Analysis of these simulated signals allows us to capture the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of FURST and the capability to measure atmospheric absorption properties as a function of altitude. Based on the prevalence of distinct spectral features, our calculations demonstrate that atmospheric absorption may be used to perform wavelength calibration from in-flight data.

Generation of Post Sunset E Region Electron Density Stratifications at the Magnetic Equator: An Analysis Using In Situ Measurements and Theoretical Estimations

AbstractMeasurements of electron density/irregularities and ion drift velocity/neutral wind were undertaken with Electron Density and Neutral Wind (ENWi) payload on‐board an RH300 flight on 6 April 2018 as part of the Sounding Rocket Experiment (SOUREX1). The presence of a clearly structured ENWi measured electron density profile is an interesting feature observed on this day. Concurrently electron density/irregularities are measured by a Langmuir probe payload which confirmed the presence of stratifications in electron density. The neutral wind measurements by ENWi also reveal a structured pattern. The hodograph analysis of the neutral wind components reveals clockwise rotation indicating downward phase propagation characteristics associated with the gravity waves. Analysis of the requisite ion convergence at the magnetic equator for occurrence of electron density stratifications using the observed electron density structures during the post sunset hours in relation to the ion convergence due to gravity wave winds is performed according to earlier theoretical simulations. This analysis reveals that conditions favoring the formation of stratification related ion convergence are present therein. Thus the present study for first time uses actual measurements of neutral winds and electron densities from same instrument to demonstrate the role of gravity wave induced winds in producing ion convergence at the magnetic equatorial region Trivandrum in the post sunset hours.

High-Fidelity Dynamics Modelling for the Design of a High-Altitude Supersonic Sounding Rocket

The accurate modelling and simulation of vehicle dynamics is a fundamental prerequisite for the design and experimental flight testing of aerospace vehicles. In the case of high-altitude supersonic sounding rockets, it is critically important to produce realistic trajectory predictions in a representative range of operational and environmental conditions as well as to produce reliable probability distributions of terminal locations. This article proposes a methodology to develop high-fidelity flight dynamics models that accurately capture aeroelastic, turbulence, atmospheric and other effects relevant to sounding rockets. The significance of establishing a high-fidelity model and of addressing such a problem in the context of developing a digital twin are discussed upfront, together with the key tools utilised in the analysis. In addition to state-of-the-art computational methods to determine the aerodynamic forces, moments and mass changes in various flight regimes (including parachute release), a detailed methodology for incorporating the dynamic aeroelastic response of the rocket is presented. The validity of the proposed method is demonstrated through a simulation case study, which utilises data from an existing rocket prototype. Results corroborate the correct implementation of the proposed algorithms and provide foundations for future research on virtual sensing and digital twin for autonomous navigation and guidance.

Studying Electric Structure of Thunderclouds by Rocket Sounding

Studying Electric Structure of Thunderclouds by Rocket Sounding

Experimental and Computational Investigation of Sounding Solid Rocket Motor

Experimental sounding rockets are important contributors to aerospace engineering research. However, experimental-sounding rockets are rarely used for student research projects by institutes in India. The unavailability of rocket motors, which require complex machining and explosive propellants, is a major barrier to the use of sounding rockets in student research projects. We ran into this problem while developing a sounding rocket motor for project and learning purposes. The project focuses on designing and constructing a solid rocket motor that researchers can use as the primary propulsion unit in experimental sounding rockets. Initially, basic designs were evaluated, as various concepts of observations of propellant configuration. The accessibility and ease of use of manufacturing and casting of propellants played a significant role in determining the best propellant based on these findings, the theoretical values for combustion chamber parameters were obtained. Also, materials were chosen accordingly, and a fundamental small-scale experimental design was built and extensively tested. This small-scale motor was created by combining all of the analysis and theoretical data.At experimental testing, we got to know the thrust generated is 763.47N and the motor runs for 4.1 sec, the total mass of the propellant is maxed at 1500g which gives us the max mass flow rate of 0.65Kg/sec this is the output for our solid rocket motor.

Flight Demonstration of Pulse Detonation Engine Using Sounding Rocket S-520-31 in Space

A detonation engine system is successfully demonstrated for the first time in space using sounding rocket S-520-31 of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency/Institute of Space Astronautical Science. Detailed flight results of an S-shaped pulse detonation engine (PDE) installed in the rocket are presented herein. The flight is conducted to confirm that the PDE and its system operate at scheduled sequences in space, confirm the reproducibility of the PDE cycle, and despin the rocket around its axis. It is confirmed that the PDE operated successfully for 14 cycles in space. The experimental plateau pressure of is of the calculated plateau pressure, which suggests that detonation occurred in 14 cycles. The pressure profiles of the cycles are similar, and the pressure integrals are , confirming the excellent reproducibility of the PDE cycle. A probability statistical approach assuming a Gaussian distribution is applied to determine the average angular acceleration difference between processes of the PDE operation, mixture supply, and oxygen supply. The results suggested that the PDE despun the rocket via the thrust produced via detonation combustion, which is consistent with a quasi-steady-state model with an accuracy of .

Spatiotemporal Limitations of Data‐Driven Modeling: An ISINGLASS Case Study

AbstractIonospheric outflow remains difficult to predict because of myriad processes acting over a large range of altitudes, physical regimes, and time scales. This study uses the ionospheric model Geospace Environment Model of Ion‐Neutral Interactions with Transverse Ion Acceleration (GEMINI‐TIA) and sounding rocket campaign data to assess the impact of this spatially and temporally variable energy inputs on ionospheric upflow. The Ionospheric Structuring: In situ and Groundbased Low Altitude Studies B sounding rocket was launched on 03/02/17, into a substorm expansion, and included nearby ground‐based measurements which, along with in situ data, are used to construct electron precipitation and electric field inputs to GEMINI‐TIA for purposes of modeling complicated upflow patterns in two important limits: (a) time variable but spatially constant inputs or (b) spatially variable inputs that are constant in time. Realistic ionospheric responses will likely fall between these two limiting cases and may also include additional energy sources not constrained by the rocket. To investigate mixed spatial and temporal forcing we conduct a couple of simulations driven with ground‐based data that resolves both space and time variations in the forcing but at a much lower spatial and temporal resolution. Results demonstrate that the time history of the ionosphere also plays a significant role when accurately describing the upflow response to auroral heating. It takes up to 20 min for simulations initialized with different conditions to converge, suggesting that at the local scales and altitude range studied here it is necessary to include at least that much hysteresis in data analysis and modeling efforts.

The Endurance Rocket Mission

NASA’s Endurance sounding rocket (yard No. 47.001) will launch from Ny Ålesund, Svalbard in May 2022 on a solid fueled Oriole III-A launch vehicle. Its \(\sim19\) minute flight will carry it to an altitude of \(\sim780~\text{km}\) above Earth’s sunlit polar cap. Its objective is to make the first measurement of the weak “ambipolar” electric field generated by Earth’s ionosphere. This field is thought to play a critical role in the upwelling and escape of ionospheric ions, and thus potentially in the evolution of Earth’s atmosphere. The results will enable us to determine the importance to ion escape of this previously unmeasured fundamental property of our planet, which will aid in a better understanding of what makes Earth habitable. Endurance will carry six science instruments (with 16 sensors) that will measure the total electrical potential drop below the spacecraft, and the physical parameters required to understand the physics of what generates the ambipolar field. The mission will be supported by simultaneous observations of solar and geomagnetic activity.

Application supporting the design of parachute geometry for the sounding rocket recovery system

Abstract The work presents an application that enables the calculation of the basic geometric dimensions of parachutes used in the sounding rocket recovery systems. Determining the geometry of the parachute canopy, based on the equation of aerodynamic drag, which allows to obtain the object drop velocity declared by the user. The developed application also enables the visualization of the parachute canopy geometry selected according to the specific requirements of the mission. The key element of the work is the possibility of obtaining the geometry of a single segment of the parachute canopy along with the necessary allowance for the seam, which significantly facilitates the process of making a ready-to-use parachute. As part of this study, the results of the calculations made with the use of the application were verified on the basis of data collected during the flight of the experimental sounding rocket.