Solo Offenders Research Articles

Offence versatility among co-offenders: A dynamic network analysis

Research examining co-offending has become increasingly popular over the last two decades. Despite this, there remains a dearth of research examining the dynamics of co-offending across time, largely due to limited access to longitudinal data. In the current paper we are interested in explaining crime versatility, and therefore we employ Relational Hyperevent Models (RHEM) to model the conditional probability that a given group of co-offenders engages in one set of crime categories rather than another. Thus, we are analyzing a two-mode network (actors by crime categories) and explain, conditional on a given group of co-offenders, their participation in the set of specific crime types involved in a particular crime event. With respect to co-offending, results reveal that, compared with solo offenders, groups of two or more co-offenders are more likely to engage in crime events involving more than just one crime category. Results suggest that in the context of co-offending both market and property crime show evidence of differential association and social learning. Naïve partners in co-offending partnerships learn the skills and knowledge needed to participate in co-offending involving market and property crime.

The weakest link? Investigative issues in serial sexual assault that lead to wrongful conviction

Wrongful conviction of an innocent person is an extreme type of injustice that plagues the criminal justice system today. Wrongful conviction for a sexual offense is especially traumatic for the individual due to the inherent stigma surrounding this type of crime; however, there is a dearth of research focusing on the unique aspects of both the offense and the investigation that may contribute to those convictions. The current study sought to answer the following research questions: 1-Are most sexual assault wrongful convictions in series inter-racial? 2- Does relational misattribution play a role in wrongful conviction for sexual assault? 3-Where in the series do wrongful convictions occur? 4-Do wrongful convictions in serial sexual assault cases occur primarily due to behavioral inconsistency on the part of the perpetrator (i.e., the crime for which there is a wrongful conviction appears to be significantly different from the rest of the series) leading to linkage blindness? 5-To what extent does police misconduct and other investigative issues play a role in mishandling of the offense as a one-off as opposed to part of series? Data for this study included 43 violent sexual series where a proven wrongful conviction was present for at least one of the crimes. Results suggest that thorough investigation, evidence testing, and the ability to reopen cases after similar incidents can reduce wrongful sexual assault convictions. Distinguishing between group and solo offending, stranger and acquaintance offenses, and developing investigative models that account for serial crime behavior change can improve investigative accuracy.

Offending Patterns in Cases of Sexual Violence Committed by Multiple Perpetrators

ABSTRACT Sexual violence committed by multiple perpetrators is a particularly worrying phenomenon given that the severity of psychopathological sequelae for the victims are increased when the sexual offense is committed by more than one offender. Preliminary studies showed that sexual violence committed by solo offenders is different from that of duos or groups of offenders. This study explores the heterogeneity within 983 cases of sexual violence committed by multiple perpetrators, with a focus not only on offenders’ modus operandi, but also victims’ routine activities and situational aspects of the crime. Results from a latent class analysis identified four offending patterns: sexual violence committed by multiple perpetrators where: 1) stranger victims were randomly selected; 2) offenders were geographically mobile; 3) victims were assaulted during social events; and 4) offenders were non-sexually motivated. Findings help identify situational characteristics interacting with offenders’ behaviors and victims’ routine activities associated with sexual violence committed by multiple perpetrators. The implications regarding the heterogeneity of criminal patterns in these forms of violence is discussed in relation to police practice, situational crime prevention strategies, and future research.

The Primary Prevention of Female Sexual Offending: Current Opportunities

A public health approach to the primary prevention of sexual offending has generated positive outcomes. Recent campaigns have challenged societal stereotypes of sexual offenders; changed organizational policies and increased public knowledge. However, primary prevention has largely been missing for female sexual offenders. This is because female sexual abuse has generated much less attention than its male equivalent. To introduce relevant context, this article initially presents a short literature review. This aims to critically explore the extent of the issue and what motivates relevant women. Typologies are then applied to introduce the distinctions between solo offenders and co-offenders. This distinction is utilized to consider how primary prevention could address female sexual offending. Two key themes emerge in terms of societal stereotypes and key offending spaces. The current evidence highlights the need to challenge societal norms, which minimize women’s propensity to commit sexual offences. It also appears significant to challenge stereotypes, which glorify attractive women who sexually abuse adolescent males. The opportunities within institutional spaces and the domestic setting are also considered, with deliberation to targeting relevant professionals and guardians in future primary prevention efforts.

Multiple-Perpetrator and Solo-Offender Sexual Assaults Between Strangers: Differences and Predictive Variables.

Multiple-perpetrator rape is an under-studied topic, but there has been a recent increase in studies on the differences between multiple-perpetrator sexual offenses and the ones perpetrated by solo offenders. This study aims to have a deeper understanding of the differences between multiple-perpetrator and solo-offender sexual assaults committed by strangers, from a sample of 400 sexual aggressions reported to the Spanish police in 2010. Differences were explored on variables related to characteristics of perpetrators, the assault (approach, control, maintenance, termination, and sexual behavior), and the victims. Data were obtained from police files on sexual assaults committed around the country. Significant differences found were similar to other studies conducted in other countries and proved that multiple perpetrator assaults committed by strangers are a different subtype. Additionally, four predictive variables of multiple-perpetrator rape were identified: older age (OR = 0.943, 95% CI = [0.92, 0.97]), alcohol or drug use (OR = 2.499, 95% CI = [1.50, 4.32]), non-Spanish nationals (OR = 1.980, 95% CI = [1.14, 3.45]), and use of violence to control the victim (OR = 2.465, 95% CI = [1.03, 5.90]). The cultural and leisure characteristics of Spanish society provide facilitating opportunities for multiple-perpetrator rapes and prevention strategies should be urgently addressed.

Differentiating Categories of Violent Adolescent Offending and the Associated Risks in Police and Youth Offending Service Records.

Historical risk assessment forms for a sample of 173 males with a history of violent offending and under supervision by Merseyside Youth Offending Services (YOS) were investigated. Subsequent arrest records were scrutinised in order to obtain a better understanding of the relationship of social and psychological risk factors to offending behavior. The mean age of the sample at the point of contact with YOS was 16.01 (SD = 1.37) with a range between 12 and 18 years. Assault was associated with solo expressive offending, a history of domestic violence, low school attendance and an inability to control impulsivity and aggression. Robbery was associated instrumental and escalated violent offending, psychological disorders, and deviant groups, including family criminal involvement. Risk assessments by professionals and the young people indicated that substance misuse co-occurred with robbery. The findings suggest that solo offenders commit the majority of violent offences and that targeted interventions should distinguish between expressive and instrumental offending.

Partners in crime? Post-release recidivism among solo and co-offenders in Norway

ABSTRACTCo-offending may increase offenders’ criminal capital in ways that impact their subsequent offending behaviour, and while highly theorized, the relationship between co-offending and reoffending has received less attention in empirical research. This study relies on Norwegian registry data to explore patterns of registered co- and solo offending before and after offenders’ first release from prison, by assessing differences in total, solo and co-reoffending between (1) co-offenders and solo offenders and (2) co-offenders embedded in different co-offending networks. The sample is based on 10 complete release cohorts, and co-offending networks are constructed from 22 years of administrative police data. Egocentric network analysis is used to obtain measures of degree centrality and tie strength. Results show that recidivism rates are higher among individuals with a co-offending network at release, and there is a consistent, positive relationship between degree centrality and reoffending. There is also a positive correlation between time spent in prison and the likelihood of co-offending after release, but there are no incidents of repeated co-offending (i.e. reoffending with co-offenders acquired before incarceration). The analysis hereby confirms several well-known patterns of co-offending in a new national context and highlights how incarceration can shape the nature and longevity of egocentric co-offending network ties.

Targeting the Most Harmful Co-Offenders in Denmark: a Social Network Analysis Approach

Research QuestionIs there a ‘power few’ individuals in Denmark who, through consistent co-offending, produce the highest frequency of crimes and the most harm to society amongst all co-offenders?DataWe analysed official statistics from the Police Crime Case Management System in Denmark on all 437,717 charges for violations of the Danish Criminal Code, the Illegal Substances Act and the Weapons Act, in which co-offender relationships were identified from 2007 to 2017, equal to 28% of the national total of all 1,554,943 such charges filed against both solo offenders and co-offenders in that time period.MethodsWe cross-referenced charging records with crime harm values taken from the Danish Crime Harm Index to measure the severity of all offence types charged. A social network analysis (SNA) algorithm was applied to the data to test for centrality and identify key co-offenders.FindingsWhile 7.5% of the co-offending population accounted for 50% of crime volume, only 3.6% of the co-offenders accounted for 50% of total crime harm. The latter made up just 1.2% of the overall offender population in Denmark, but contributed 24% of overall harm. Social network analysis of how central that power few was in relation to other co-offenders suggests an even smaller cohort of co-offenders—the ‘power few of the power few’—who are disproportionality more connected to other co-offenders.ConclusionsThe ‘power few’ phenomenon exists in co-offender networks, with a pronounced concentration of harm caused by a small number of co-offenders. The evidence suggests that targeting co-offenders based on social network analysis can enhance the harm potentially reduced by both investigations and crime prevention strategies.

Co-offending Group Composition and Violence: The Impact of Sex, Age, and Group Size on Co-offending Violence

Co-offenders commit more violent offenses than solo offenders, in part due to collective behavior processes that exacerbate behavior in groups. But, different co-offenders likely experience these processes differently. Following this, this research examines the relationship between co-offending, group sex and age composition, and violence using National Incident–Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data. Results indicate that male groups are more likely to seriously injure victims, but that sex composition matters most in small groups; in larger groups, serious injury is likely regardless of sex composition. Furthermore, age is related to violence such that the presence of more young adult offenders is associated with increased likelihood of serious injury. Taken together, this research suggests the importance of considering group composition in the situational production of group violence.

Journey-to-Crime Distances of Residential Burglars in China Disentangled: Origin and Destination Effects

Research on journey-to-crime distance has revealed the importance of both the characteristics of the offender as well as those of target communities. However, the effect of the home community has so far been ignored. Besides, almost all journey-to-crime studies were done in Western societies, and little is known about how the distinct features of communities in major Chinese cities shape residential burglars’ travel patterns. To fill this gap, we apply a cross-classified multilevel regression model on data of 3763 burglary trips in ZG City, one of the bustling metropolises in China. This allows us to gain insight into how residential burglars’ journey-to-crime distances are shaped by their individual-level characteristics as well as those of their home and target communities. Results show that the characteristics of the home community have larger effects than those of target communities, while individual-level features are most influential. Older burglars travel over longer distances to commit their burglaries than the younger ones. Offenders who commit their burglaries in groups tend to travel further than solo offenders. Burglars who live in communities with a higher average rent, a denser road network and a higher percentage of local residents commit their burglaries at shorter distances. Communities with a denser road network attract burglars from a longer distance, whereas those with a higher percentage of local residents attract them from shorter by.

Comparing Solo- and Co-Offending Female Sex Offenders on Variables of Pathology, Offense Characteristics, and Recidivism.

Due to the smaller proportion of female sex offenders (2%-12% of all sexual offenses) compared with male sex offenders, we know much less about these women to aid in the assessment, treatment, and prevention of their offending behavior compared with men. One promising distinction in female sex offender typology is solo-offending females versus females who offend with a male co-offender. The current study uses a sample of 225 incarcerated female sex offenders to compare solo and co-offending women on variables of psychopathology, criminal history, victim and offender information, and recidivism rates. Results indicate that solo offenders are more likely to have male, unrelated victims, score higher on dominance and aggression, and are more likely to generally recidivate. Solo versus co-offending status was not a significant predictor for sexual recidivism. Implications for assessment and treatment are discussed.

Solo and Multi-Offenders Who Commit Stranger Kidnapping: An Assessment of Factors That Correlate With Violent Events.

Research has demonstrated that co-offending dyads and groups often use more violence than individual offenders. Despite the attention given to co-offending by the research community, kidnapping remains understudied. Stranger kidnappings are more likely than non-stranger kidnappings to involve the use of a weapon. Public fear of stranger kidnapping warrants further examination of this specific crime, including differences between those committed by solo and multi-offender groups. The current study uses National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data to assess differences in use of violence among 4,912 stranger kidnappings by solo offenders and multi-offender groups using cross-tabulations, ordinal regression, and logistic regression. The results indicate that violent factors are significantly more common in multi-offender incidents, and that multi-offender groups have fewer arrests than solo offenders. The implications of these findings are discussed.

U.S. Homicides: Multi-Offenders and the Presence of Female Offenders

Abstract Prior research reveals a clear need to distinguish between homicides committed by solo offenders and those who act with another person. Moreover, as gender is considered in homicides, the dynamics of the offense change. This study examined homicide incidents by several offender combinations that consider gender and number of offenders. We rely on 2006–2010 National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data (N = 12,441). The findings indicate that male solo offenders commit the majority of homicides. When offenders act with other offenders, the characteristics of the offense and offender vary. Multi-offenders were more likely than solo offenders to be younger and black. They also are more likely to have a concurrent offense and have either a stranger victim or related victim. When a female offender was present, the dynamics also varied from incidents where a female offender was not present. Incidents with a female offender present were more likely to have older offenders and co-offenders. Such...

Characteristics of females who sexually offend: a comparison of solo and co-offenders.

Although recent typologies of female sexual offenders have recognized the importance of having a co-offender, the clinical characteristics of solo and co-female sexual offenders remain poorly understood. The aim of this study was to compare solo (n = 20) and co- (n = 20) female sexual offenders on a variety of clinical characteristics. It was found that although solo and co-offenders reported similar developmental experiences and psychological dispositions, differences were found in environmental niche, offense preceding, and positive factors. Specifically, solo offenders demonstrated a greater presence of personal vulnerabilities including mental health and substance abuse difficulties. Co-offenders reported a greater presence of environmentally based factors, including a current partner who was a known sex offender and involvement with antisocial peers. It is suggested that these results have implications for understanding assessment and intervention needs for these groups of sexual offenders.

Does Gender Change Things? Analysis of the Difference Between Male and Female Violent Crime for Solo and Co-Offenders

Abstract The narrowing of the gender gap among violent male and female offenders has led to inquiry of the relationship between gender and violent co-offending relationships. This study examines the relationship between offender/offense and victim characteristics to offender categories: solo or co-offender, offender categories according to number and gender, and the presence of a female offender (no female, one female, or two females) using official National Incident-Based Reporting System data. The findings indicate that co-offenders were significantly more likely than solo offenders to have multiple victims. Incidents involving at least one female offender are more likely to have multiple victims and at least one female victim. Several factors were significantly related to incidents involving more severe offenses: a lack of the presence of a female offender, co-offenders, suspected weapon use, an offender who is a minority, male victim, victim is not related to the offender(s), and a solo victim. As the...

The Ties that Bind: The Decision to Co‐Offend in Fraud

It is frequently observed that fraud has a greater economic impact on society than any other category of crime. Arguing that both research and practitioner frameworks in auditing and forensic accounting have tended to adopt an individualizing perspective predicated primarily on solo offending, this article adopts an inductive approach to consider why individuals co‐offend in fraud. It reports the results of a set of interviews with 37 individuals convicted of a range of frauds including financial statement fraud, insider trading, credit card fraud, money laundering, and asset misappropriation. In each instance, the fraud was perpetrated by a group of two or more co‐offenders. Based on inductive, exploratory case coding, we find that reasons for co‐offending vary according to the type of bond that exists between co‐offenders. Two dimensions of fraudulent co‐offending are identified—the primary beneficiary of the fraud and the nature of group attachment—to derive three distinct archetypes of bonds between co‐offenders: (1) individual‐serving functional bonds, (2) organization‐serving functional bonds, and (3) affective bonds. Key elements of each archetype as well as their impact on the decision to co‐offend are examined. Our findings suggest that the social nature of fraud is not merely an incidental feature of the crime but is instead a potential key to understanding its etiology and some of its distinctive features. They also support the need for diagnostic tools to move beyond individualistic analyses of fraud toward a broader, group‐sensitive assessment of fraud risk.

Self-Reported Psychopathic Traits in Sexually Offending Juveniles Compared With Generally Offending Juveniles and General Population Youth

The aim of the current study is to gain a better insight into the relationship between sexually aggressive behaviour and psychopathy in youths; juveniles who sexually offended (JSOs) were compared with generally offending youths and a general population group. Seventy-one JSOs, 416 detained general offenders, and 331 males from the general population were assessed by means of the Youth Psychopathic traits Inventory (YPI), a self-report instrument. Sexually and generally offending juveniles had significantly lower levels of self-reported psychopathic traits than youths from the general population. Juvenile sexual offenders and generally offending juveniles did not differ in self-reported psychopathic traits. Furthermore, no differences in self-reported psychopathic traits were found between subgroups of JSOs (i.e., child molesters, solo offenders, and group offenders). The finding that self-reported psychopathic traits are less prevalent in offending juveniles than in general population youths raises questions about the usefulness of the YPI when comparing psychopathic traits between clinical samples and general-population samples.

Co-offending in Canada, England and the United States: a cross-national comparison

This article compares the characteristics of police-reported co-offending groups and solo offenders in Canada, England and the United States. Comparative analysis of crime in these three countries is fostered by the relative similarity of their substantive criminal codes (all originating in English common law), their approaches to law enforcement, and their crime recording procedures. The data include over 100,000 incidents cleared by a large UK police force, 2.5 million incidents in Canada, and 1.3 million incidents in 36 states in the United States, in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Comparative analyses include the prevalence of co-offending, the size and composition of co-offending groups, and key correlates of group crime, such as offence type and the age and sex of participants. Substantial similarities are observed across the three data sets, although there are also intriguing differences. These findings are discussed in relation to ongoing attempts to draw general conclusions regarding the nature and extent of group crime and co-offending networks.

Adult female sexual offending: A comparison between co-offenders and solo offenders in a Dutch sample

Few studies have examined female sexual offenders who committed a sexual offence with an accomplice (co-offender) and without an accomplice (solo offender). In this study, several offence, victim and offender characteristics of 60 adult female sexual offenders were examined. The first purpose was to explore the personality pathology among these offenders. The second purpose was to examine the sexual, violent and any recidivism rates of these offenders. These offenders were referred for an inpatient or outpatient psychiatric and/or psychological evaluation between January 1999 and December 2008. The results revealed that the mean number of DSM-IV Axis I disorder was larger among solo offenders compared to co-offenders. Conversely, the mean number of DSM-IV personality disorders was larger among co-offenders compared to solo offenders. Furthermore, the sexual, violent and any recidivism rate of these female sexual offenders was 0, 1.9 and 7.7%, respectively. Offender type (i.e. solo offender) significantly predicts a new offence of any type.

The development of criminal style in adolescence and young adulthood: separating the lemmings from the loners.

Despite broad consensus that most juvenile crimes are committed with peers, many questions regarding developmental and individual differences in criminal style (i.e., co-offending vs. solo offending) remain unanswered. Using prospective 3-year longitudinal data from 937 14- to 17-year-old serious male offenders, the present study investigates whether youths tend to offend alone, in groups, or a combination of the two; whether these patterns change with age; and whether youths who engage in a particular style share distinguishing characteristics. Trajectory analyses examining criminal styles over age revealed that, while most youth evinced both types of offending, two distinct groups emerged: an increasingly solo offender trajectory (83%); and a mixed style offender trajectory (17%). Alternate analyses revealed (5.5%) exclusively solo offenders (i.e., only committed solo offenses over 3 years). There were no significant differences between groups in individuals’ reported number of friends, quality of friendships, or extraversion. However, the increasingly solo and exclusively solo offenders reported more psychosocial maturity, lower rates of anxiety, fewer psychopathic traits, less gang involvement and less self reported offending than mixed style offenders. Findings suggest that increasingly and exclusively solo offenders are not loners, as they are sometimes portrayed, and that exclusively solo offending during adolescence, while rare and previously misunderstood, may not be a risk factor in and of itself.