Solid Concrete Floor Research Articles

Economic impact of investment in animal welfare–enhancing flooring solutions – Implications for promoting sustainable dairy production in Sweden

PurposeThe purpose of this paper was to assess the economic impact of investment in different animal welfare–enhancing flooring solutions in Swedish dairy farming.Design/methodology/approachThe authors developed a bio-economic model and used stochastic partial budgeting approach to simulate the economic consequences of enhancing solid and slatted concrete floors with soft rubber covering.FindingsThe findings highlight that keeping herds on solid and slatted concrete floor surfaces with soft rubber coverings is a profitable solution, compared with keeping herds on solid and slatted concrete floors without a soft covering. The profit per cow when kept on a solid concrete floor with soft rubber covering increased by 13%–16% depending on the breed. Practical implicationsPromoting farm investments such as improvement in flooring solution, which have both economic and animal welfare incentives, is a potential way of promoting sustainable dairy production. Farmers may make investments in improved floors, resulting in enhanced animal welfare and economic outcomes necessary for sustaining dairy production.Originality/valueThis literature review indicated that the economic impact of investment in specific types of floor improvement solutions, investment costs and financial outcomes have received little attention. This study provides insights needed for a more informed decision-making process when selecting optimal flooring solutions for new and renovated barns that improve both animal welfare and ease the burden on farmers and public financial support.

REPRODUCTIVE FEATURES AND ELEMENTS OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOWS DURING OF DIFFERENT HOUSING AND SEASONS OF THE YEAR

In pig farming, farrowing structures are used to reduce crushing ofpiglets. The movement of the sow in such structures is usually limited, which reduces the probability and frequency of dangerous changes in posture that lead to the death of piglets. Such structural elements of the farrowing limit the movement of the sow while standing, sitting, lying down and turning on its side. Limited mobility and behavioral manifestations of sows cause a decrease in the level of well-being. Machine-based farrowing systems are designed to address these welfare issues by providing more space, allowing sows to turn around and interact more with their piglets. In this regard, the aim of the conducted experiment was to study the influence of housing conditions and seasons of the year in the farrowing shop of sows on their reproductive parameters and elements of behavioural in the conditions of a commercial pig farm. Materials and methods. For the scientific and economic experiment, two groups of sows of the Large White breed were formed in the amount of 10 heads each. The sows of the first control group were housed in a room with a partially regulated microclimate in machines on a solid concrete floor, with the division of the machine into: a compartment for the sow and feeding and resting piglets with the use of variable straw bedding for the non-fixed maintenance of the sow, the size is 2.0Ч2.3 m. The sows of the second experimental group were housed in a room with a regulated microclimate in machines on a partially slotted floor above concrete baths without the use of litter, with a fixed retention of the sow in the machine during the entire suckling period, the size of the machine is 1.8Ч2.4 m. Results. As a result of the experiment, it was determined that that the introduction into production of a new type of farrowing machine made it possible to improve the survival of piglets by 21.9 %, to increase their average daily gain during the suckling period by 11.1 % and the weight of the litter of piglets before weaning by 17.9 %. Elements of the behavioural of suckling sows and suckling piglets depend on the season and structural features of the premises and machines for farrowing. In modern machines, sows rest more (by 6.8-19.0 %) and move less (by 27.5-32.4 %). While piglets show by 6.3 % more mobile activity in machines of the new design in winter and by 5.5 % less in summer. Conclusion. On the basis of the conducted experiment, it was established that the design of the farrowing system of sows significantly affects their behavioral elements and reproductive parameters, ensuring social interaction between sows and piglets, which is confirmed by the reliability of the obtained research results. Key words: machines, period of the year, productive traits, suckling piglets, suckling sows, farrowing system, welfare.

COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF SANITARY AND HYGIENIC NORMS OF HOUSING PIGS ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT PARATYPICAL FACTORS

Introduction. The relevance of the work is determined by the implementation of the method of multi-parametric assessment of the microclimate of premises for pigs by the method of continuous automatic registration. The purpose o f the research was to conduct a comparative assessment of indoor pollution with carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and fine dust based on various paratypical factors. Research methods. Analytical, zootechnical, physical, ethological and biometric research methods are applied. Research results. A comparative assessment of the sanitary and hygienic norms for housing pigs in brick premises on concrete and slotted floors in machines was carried out. It was determined that during the periods of the year, the average daily CO2 and NH3 air pollution in pig houses with concrete and slotted floors in the machines were close to the normative values of MPC. The volume concentration of methane was 1.9-3.4 times higher in the premise with a slotted floor in the machines, which is associated with the features of the technology of the self-alloying system of manure removal. According to the calculations of the correlation between the temperature and the relative humidity of the air outside and inside the premises, a probable mostly positive connection was determined. The locomotor activity indices of young pigs were 9.6-12.4 % higher on the slatted floor, but they were inferior in the food activity index by 6.4-16.2 % to peers kept on the concrete floor. The variance analysis determined the probable influence fi=0.784) of the method of housing pigs on solid concrete and slotted floors in machines on the variability of the volume concentration of methane. It was also found out that the period of the year likely influenced the variability of air temperature, volume concentration of carbon dioxide, ammonia and mass concentration of fine dust in the room fi= 0.799; 0.794; 0.352 and 0.439, respectively). Conclusions. The average daily volume concentration in the air of carbon dioxide and ammonia in pig houses by periods of the year approached the normative values of the MPC. The volume concentration of methane was higher in the premise with a slotted floor, which is related to the features of the technology of the self-alloying manure removal system. The probable influence of the method of housing pigs on the variability of indicators of relative air humidity and volume concentration of methane wasdetermined. The probable influence of the period of the year on the variability of air temperature indicators, volume concentration of carbon dioxide, ammonia and mass concentration of fine dust has also been proven. Key words: measuring and computing complex, microclimate parameters, comparative assessment, premise for pigs, paratypic factor

Can we further reduce the time pregnant sows spend in gestation stalls?

There is growing societal pressure to eliminate close confinement of farm animals. However, under current EU legislation, sows can be kept in gestation stalls for up to 28 days post-service. Pregnant sows fight to establish a dominance hierarchy at mixing. This poses welfare and productivity concerns particularly if sows are mixed in early pregnancy when the pregnancy is less well established and they are still recovering from the demands of lactation. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of day of mixing (PEN4D:4 days or PEN28D:28 days post-insemination) on measures of animal welfare (skin lesion and cortisol concentrations) collected at mixing, 3 and 7 days after and on body condition (back fat thickness), reproductive performance (pregnancy and farrowing rate) and litter size. Sows included in the study (n=144) were of mixed parity (parities 2-7) and they were all weaned 4 weeks after farrowing and moved from farrowing to the breeding area where they were placed into individual stalls. Once inseminated, sows were assigned according to parity order and genetics to one of the two experimental treatments (PEN4D and PEN28D) and they were maintained as a static group until 1 week before farrowing. The group size was 21, and sows were housed on solid concrete floor, with a slope to convey manure in a drain, and with a floor space allowance of 2.25 m2/head. One block of wood on chain and one chain were provided as enrichments. Feed was distributed manually, spreading it in a wide clean area of the pen floor and in the troughs in the individual stall.There were no treatment effects on salivary cortisol concentrations or on the number of fresh skin injuries. For the old scratches score, a significant effect of treatment was observed only at three days after mixing, where PEN28D sows had a higher anterior lesion score than PEN4D sows (P=0.005). Furthermore, there were no treatment effects on backfat thickness, reproductive performance or litter size. Results of this experiment indicate that mixing sows into groups early after insemination (within 4 days post AI) rather than 28 d after has no effect on reproductive and welfare indicators measured in the short term after mixing.

Gradual Growth of Several Claw Traits and Claw Lesions in Dairy Cows after Hoof Trimming

Several claw measurements, horn growth and wear were recorded monthly in a research farm to investigate the effect of solid concrete floor and gradual growth of these traits over 3 month after trimming. Two methods of hoof trimming were used: Standard Dutch (STD) and hollow (HOL). The experimental cows (19 primiparous and 19 multiparous) were selected (8 primiparous and 11 multiparous cows for STD and 9 primiparous and 10 multiparous cows for HOL). Information on claw traits was recorded on right lateral hind claw between November 2021 and April 2022. In addition, lesions development of interdigital dermatitis and heel erosion (IDHE) and digital dermatitis (DD) was studied in both rear feet. No differences were detected in claw traits among the trimming methods. A gradual growth of all claw traits investigated, was detected in each month (1, 2 and 3) after trimming. Lesions of IDHE developed gradually over time in both trimming methods. Development of different stages of DD was investigated 3 months after trimming methods. Classical ulcerative lesions (stage M2). Persisted in each month after trimming and did not cure effectively after caw trimming and frequent use of footbaths.

Effect of microclimatic variables in different flooring systems of pig sty

The influence of the flooring pattern on the thermal comfort of Large White Yorkshire weaned pigs was investigated in three different flooring systems. Three different flooring systems in conventional pig farming viz., solid concrete floor (T1), raised slatted concrete floor (T2) and raised slatted polypropylene floor (T3) formed the experimental housing design and three sty of equal sizes measuring 3.50 m x 2.90 m were taken. Pigs in the different housing systems are maintained in standard floor space of 0.8-1.0 m2 with similar feeding practices and management conditions. Under each treatment, 10 numbers (5 males and 5 females in each treatment) of weaned large white Yorkshire pigs are allotted with average body weight of 16.50±0.50 kg respectively. Microclimatic variables include air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity were recorded daily and statistically there was significantly (P

Impact of Slatted Floor Configuration on Manure Drainage and Growth Performance of Finishing Pigs

HighlightsUnder the same conditions of cast-iron usage, increasing the width of the gap and slat width within a certain range can enhance the bearing capacity of the slatted floors.Variations in the gap and slat width do not significantly affect pig growth performance.The recommended gap width of a cast-iron slatted floor in a fattening pig house is 15 mm.Abstract.Slatted flooring is an important part of the structure of pig houses and can aid in the removal of pig manure to underground ditches via gravity and locomotion. In this study, four different cast-iron slatted floor configurations with different gap widths (10, 15, and 20 mm) and slat widths (10 and 15 mm) were set up in 11 partially slatted-floor pig pens of the same size, each housing 10 fattening pigs with body weights of approximately 63 kg. The residual manure on the solid concrete floor area and a cast-iron slatted floor area were collected at different time intervals (24, 48, and 72 h) and weighed. According to previous studies on total manure and total urine production of pigs, the manure drainage capacity of four types of slatted floor was calculated. The growth performance of all of the pigs was monitored throughout the experiment. The ultimate bearing capacity of the four types of slatted floors was measured by a third-party professional testing organization. The results showed that the gap width and slat width of the cast-iron slatted floor had significant effects on its ultimate bearing capacity and manure drainage capacity (P<0.05) but had no significant effect on pig growth performance (P>0.05). The recommended gap width of a cast-iron slatted floor in a fattening pigs house is 15 mm. These findings can be used to optimize the design of cast-iron slatted flooring for fattening pigs, which must also be safe, economical, and efficient. Keywords: Cast iron, Dimensions, Fattening pig, Manure drainage, Slatted floor.

Better recovery from lameness among dairy cows housed in hospital pens

Housing in hospital pens may be beneficial for lame cows due to soft flooring and less competition for resources. We compared recovery from lameness among dairy cows housed in designated hospital pens, with deep-litter straw, with recovery among cows housed together with the rest of the lactating cows in their home pens, with cubicles and slatted or solid concrete floors. Additionally, we compared lying behavior in the 2 groups of cows. A total of 168 lame dairy cows from 5 herds were included in the study. Each herd was visited once weekly, and lame cows (locomotion score 3 or 4 on a 5-point scale) were examined in a hoof-trimming chute, trimmed, and randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments: housing in a hospital pen (termed "treatment"; 72 cows) or housing under the herds' standard conditions together with the rest of the lactating cows in the herd (termed "control"; 96 cows). Cows were locomotion scored weekly until they were no longer lame or until they had been part of the trial for 3 weeks (i.e., 2, 3, or 4 locomotion scorings per cow). We categorized cows to describe the progression of lameness over time: recovery (divided into fast, medium, or slow), improvement without recovery, constant lameness, or worsening of lameness. Lying behavior was recorded in a sample of 60 of the 168 cows for a period of 5 d. Overall, recovery from lameness was significantly different between treatment and control cows. The proportion of cows included in the study with locomotion score 4 and a subsequent improvement was significantly higher among treatment cows than among control cows. Among cows included with locomotion score 4, 40% of treatment cows also had a locomotion score 4 at the fourth locomotion scoring, 46% had improved to a score 3, and 14% were no longer lame. In comparison, 73% of control cows had a locomotion score 4 at the fourth locomotion scoring, 16% had improved to a score 3, and 11% were no longer lame. We found no differences between treatment and control cows for mean daily lying time, number of steps per day, number of daily lying bouts, or mean duration of lying bouts. Housing of lame dairy cows in a hospital pen with a soft surface, easier access to feed and water, a smaller group size, and reduced waiting time for milking may have positive effects on recovery from lameness. Typically, farmers have housed only severely lame cows in hospital pens. However, our results indicate that less severely lame cows may also benefit from a stay in a hospital pen.

PSII-6 Performance based NEm requirement adjustment for heifers fed during winter months in eastern South Dakota compared to the Texas panhandle

Abstract Crossbred beef heifers [n = 96; initial shrunk BW=238 kg (SD 21.5)] were used in a completely randomized design to evaluate climatic effects on feedlot heifer growth and efficiency. The study was conducted from November 8, 1991 to May 11, 1992. Heifers were assembled into groups at the Ruminant Nutrition Center (RNC) in Brookings, SD. One group (TX; n = 48) was shipped to New Deal, Texas and fed on slatted-concrete floors, and the second group (SD; n = 48), was shipped half-way to Texas, returned to the RNC, and fed on solid-concrete floors. Transit distance was 1,530 km. Pen was the experimental unit (6 to 8 head·pen-1); diets, health management, and implant programs were normalized across locations. The finishing diet was fed from d 33 to 185 at both locations and the energetics assessment was for the period from d 60 to 185. There were 18 d below -7.8°C and 102 d below 5°C in SD. Transit shrink, estimated empty body fat % (EBF), BW adjusted to 28% EBF (AFBW), and DMI did not differ (P ≥ 0.10). Heifer ADG was 18% greater (P < 0.05) in TX (1.40 vs. 1.16 ± 0.037 kg). Observed vs. predicted dietary energy differed (P ≤ 0.05), for NEm (0.97 vs. 0.87 ± 0.013) and NEg (0.97 vs. 0.84 ± 0.016) for TX and SD, respectively. Using calculated diet energy values based upon TX heifer performance as a reference, relative adjustments to metabolic rate were calculated. The estimated metabolic rate was elevated (P < 0.05) for SD heifers (0.077 vs. 0.101 ± 0.0031 Mcal/MBS). These results indicate that heifers fed in South Dakota had a 31% increase in metabolic rate when compared to heifers fed in the Texas panhandle. More of these types of assessments are needed to improve projection and tracking models used in precision cattle feeding.

Technopathien der Gliedmaßen bei Mastschweinen: Ursa chen, Entstehung und Tierschutzrelevanz

Determination of possible risk factors of adventitious bursae (AB) in finishing pigs depending on different types of flooring and evaluation of their impact on animal welfare. The prevalence of adventitious bursae in 1702 finishing pigs from nine conventional fattening farms with different types of flooring (fully slatted, PigPort = partially slatted floor, slanted floor = solid concrete floor, deep straw-bedded) was investigated at entry into fattening farm and shortly before slaughter. Existing bursae were recorded and graded and the skin of the affected locations was evaluated. Additionally, the weight of each individual pig was recorded on both dates. On fully slatted floors 94.0 % of the pigs showed at least one bursa shortly before slaughter, in PigPort-farms 87.6 %, in slanted floor-farms 82.9 % and on deep straw-bedded floor 50.3 %. When comparing both assessment dates the pigs on fully slatted floors had the highest increase in prevalence of bursae, followed by the pigs in PigPorts, on slanted floors and on straw. Furthermore, the pigs fattened on fully slatted floors showed a significantly (p < 0.001) higher number of bursae per animal at the end of the fattening period than the pigs fattened on other types of flooring as well as a significantly (p < 0.001) higher proportion of more severe bursae. The high prevalence of bursae assessed in this study represents, irrespective of the presence of pain, a deficit regarding animal husbandry in terms of technopathy and therefore a serious issue regarding animal welfare. That requires changes in terms of animal welfare standards. By reducing the amount of slots in the pens of fattening farms, as it is the case in PigPort- and even more in slanted floor-farms, the prevalence and number of bursae per pig and the severity of bursae can be reduced. An additional supply of a soft, flexible lying area, e.g. with straw as litter, is another positive measure that should be implemented if possible.

Assessing farmer awareness of digital dermatitis prevalence in Danish dairy herds

Digital dermatitis (DD) is a major and widespread contagious disease of the feet in dairy cattle.1–4 The disease may cause lameness in cows,5 decreased milk yield and excessive use of...

Clinical lameness and risk factors in a Spanish Holstein population

Given the economical importance of lameness in dairy milk production, the presence or absence of clinical lameness and the associated risk factors were studied in a Spanish Holstein population. Lameness was diagnosed by veterinarians or farmers as visually abnormal gait. Up to 6 cases per lactation were considered in 6568 lactations of 3459 different cows with first calving between January 2005 and October 2011. Geographical area (region where herd is located) and parity number (primiparous and multiparous) were studied as risk factors, along with the following herd facilities: housing type, flooring, access to soil surface, presence or absence of a footbath, and periodical trimming. Seasonality of lameness was determined as season when first lameness event was diagnosed and lactation period (first 120 days or later) when first event occurred. Also milk, fat, and protein yield production were analyzed as risk factors. The association analyses were estimated using multivariate generalized linear models with a log link function. Lameness was diagnosed in 13.8% of cows and 8.7% of lactations, with multiparous cows being more prone than primiparous cows (odds ratio (OR)=1.50). Solid concrete was more beneficial than grooved concrete for primiparous cows (OR=0.67) as were freestalls as compared to cubicles, while no differences relating to housing system or flooring type were found for multiparous cows. Changes in walking surfaces led to the highest risk of lameness only for cows with two or more lactations (OR=1.33), where it was found to be more beneficial either always or never having soil surface available. Presence of footbaths was associated with reducing lameness occurrence in multiparous cows while periodical trimming was a useful preventive treatment for primiparous cows. Winter was the season of diagnosis of a first event with less probability of being recurrent for multiparous cows. No association with production traits were found either for primiparous or multiparous cows. Herd factor risks were therefore different for primiparous and multiparous. Young cows were less prone to lameness in herds with solid concrete floors and periodical trimming. However, walking on the same kind of surface throughout the lactation and the availability of a footbath prevented the occurrence of lameness in multiparous cows.

Variance components of aggressive behavior in genetically highly connected Pietrain populations kept under two different housing conditions1

Mixing of unfamiliar pigs is a standard management procedure in commercial pig production and is often associated with a period of intense and physically damaging aggression. Aggression is considered a problem for animal welfare and production. The objective of the present paper was to investigate the genetic background of aggressive behavior traits at mixing of unfamiliar gilts under 2 different housing conditions. Therefore, a total of 543 purebred Pietrain gilts, from 2 nucleus farms (farm A: n = 302; farm B: n = 241) of 1 breeding company, were tested at an average age of 214 d (SD 12.2 d) for aggressive behavior by 1 observer. Observations included the frequencies of aggressive attack and reciprocal fighting during mixing with unfamiliar gilts. On farm A 41% of the gilts were purebred Pietrains, whereas 59% were purebred Landrace or Duroc gilts. On the farm B 42% of the gilts were purebred Pietrains, and 58% purebred Large White gilts. The average size of the newly mixed groups of gilts was 28 animals on farm A and 18 animals on farm B. The Pietrain gilts from the 2 herds were genetically closely linked. They were the offspring of 96 sires, with 64% of these sires having tested progeny in both farms. There were clear differences in the housing of the animals between the 2 farms. The test pen on farm A had a solid concrete floor littered with wooden shavings and was equipped with a dry feeder. On farm B there was a partly slatted floor, and the gilts were fed by an electronic sow feeder. Mean space allowance was 2.6 m(2)/gilt on farm A and 3.9 m(2)/gilt on farm B. Although large interindividual differences existed, gilts from farm B performed numerically more aggressive attack (mean 1.12, SD 1.42 vs. mean 0.71, SD 1.20) and reciprocal fighting (mean 0.78, SD 0.98 vs. mean 0.44, SD 0.82) when compared with gilts from farm A. The heritabilities and additive genetic variances for behavioral traits were estimated with a linear animal model and were on a low level in farm A (h(2) = 0.11, SE = 0.07, and σ(2)a = 0.12 for aggressive attack and h(2) = 0.04, SE = 0.07, and σ(2)a = 0.02 for reciprocal fighting) and on a moderate level in farm B (h(2) = 0.29, SE = 0.13, and σ(2)a = 0.44 for aggressive attack and h(2) = 0.33, SE = 0.12, and σ(2)a = 0.27 for reciprocal fighting). For both aggressive attack and reciprocal fighting, genetic correlation of the same trait between farm A and farm B was 1.0. Therefore, aggressive behavior does not seem to be influenced by genotype × environment interactions. Under these circumstances aggressions in group housing can be reduced by genetic selection against aggressive behavior. Therewith, the welfare and health of sows will ultimately increase.

A Study into Digital Dermatitis Transmission and Bacterial Associated Pathological Changes Involved in the Disease

Digital dermatitis is a highly prevalent painful lesion affecting the feet in dairy cattle. Even though the pathogenesis has been subject of investigation since 1974, there is still a lack of knowledge about the spread of the disease among cows within a herd as well as between herds. The purpose of this study was to monitor transmission of digital dermatitis under experimental conditions between naive heifers and affected animals, to monitor the changes in clinical appearance, microbial colonisation of the skin as lesions progressed and to apply a q-PCR for the detection of Treponema spp. in faecal samples. Eight heifers with clinical normal digital skin were housed with 5 heifers with severe digital dermatitis lesion for 8 weeks on a solid concrete floor with an accumulating layer of slurry. Digital skin was examined daily and lesions were clinically scored. Skin biopsies were taken from the healthy heifers at introduction and weekly from all lesions for histopathological evaluation and fluorescence in situ hybridization. None of the healthy heifers developed digital dermatitis and in 4 out of 5 infected heifers the lesions healed during the study. All samples from healthy skin were negative for Treponema spp. and one sample were positive for Dichelobacter nodosus. Colonization of healthy skin could not be identified in this study. There was no significant relation between clinical scoring of the lesions and histopathological score and the presence of Treponema spp. There were however a significant relation between the prevalence of Treponema spp. in the skin and severity of changes in epidermis and dermis. By qPCR all the healthy heifers were found to excrete Treponema spp. in their faeces.

Use of Impact Testing to Assess the Softness of Bedding Materials

Bedding materials are very important for cows in freestalls, because they can provide a high degree of comfort to these cows. But techniques of assessing their surface comfort on in the field still remain rather subjective. The objective of this study was to assess softness of bedding materials for use in cow free-stall bases in China. The Clegg Impact values of rubber-coated slatted floor, Solid wood floor and concrete floor are measured in order to compare with the value of pasture. The softest bedding material was the wood (40.43CIV/L) followed by rubber-coated slatted floor (64.23 CIV/L). The hardest material was the concrete floor (132.21 CIV/L).Clegg Impact Tester with a 1-kg hammer was used in this study. The impact of the hammer on bedding materials results in a digital display based on peak deceleration of the hammer’s impact with the free-stall base in tens of gravities (CIV/L). The CIV/L value, as measured by the Clegg Impact hammer, is based on peak deceleration of the 1-kg hammer’s impact with the surface, from a height of 30 cm. The reasonable suggestions of bedding materials used as the free-stall bases are recommended for the farmer in China.

Effects of restricted feed intake on finishing pigs weighing between 68 and 114 kilograms fed twice or 6 times daily1

In a previous study with limit-fed gestating gilts, we observed that gilts fed 6 times/d had greater ADG than those fed the same amount over 2 feedings. To confirm these earlier responses, we used finishing pigs as a model in two 42-d trials and two 28-d trials to evaluate the effects of restricted feed intake and feeding frequency (2 vs. 6 times/d, floor fed) on pig performance between 68 and 114 kg. In all experiments, pigs (10/pen) were housed in 1.8 × 3.1 m pens with a half-solid, half-slatted concrete floor. Pigs were fed a corn- and soybean meal-based diet formulated to 1.15% standardized ileal digestible Lys and 3,294 kcal of ME/kg. In Exp. 1 to 3, energy and Lys were supplied to pigs according to NRC (1998) calculations to target an ADG of 0.80 kg. In Exp. 4, the diet was supplied to pigs to target an ADG of 0.80 kg (low feed intake) or 0.95 kg (high feed intake) to determine if the amount of energy above the maintenance requirement and feeding frequency affected pig performance. Pigs were fed by dropping similar amounts of feed onto the solid concrete floor either 2 (0700 or 1400 h) or 6 times (3 meals within 2 h at the morning and afternoon feedings) per day with an Accu-Drop Feed Dispenser (AP Systems, Assumption, IL). In Exp. 1 and 2, pigs fed 6 times daily had increased (P < 0.02) ADG and G:F compared with pigs fed 2 times per day. Greater feeding frequency increased (P < 0.05) the duration of time spent feeding and standing and reduced the lying time. In Exp. 3, a third treatment was included to determine whether the improvements in performance were due to decreased feed wastage. This treatment was designed to minimize feed wastage by dropping feed closer to the floor for pigs fed 2 times per day. Pigs fed 6 times daily had improved (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F compared with pigs in either treatment fed 2 times per day. No difference (P > 0.05) in performance was observed between pigs fed 2 times per day when feed was dropped from the feed drop or by the modified method. In Exp. 4, increasing the feeding frequency from 2 to 6 times per day improved (P < 0.01) ADG and G:F for pigs fed the low feed intake and tended to increase (P < 0.06) ADG and improved (P < 0.05) G:F for pigs fed the high feed intake. In limit-feeding situations, increasing the frequency of feeding from 2 to 6 times per day improved pig performance, which confirmed our earlier findings in gestating gilts.

Effects of animal activity and air temperature on methane and ammonia emissions from a naturally ventilated building for dairy cows

Abstract Knowledge of how different factors affect gas emissions from animal buildings can be useful for emission prediction purposes and for the improvement of emission abatement techniques. In this study, the effects of dairy cow activity and indoor air temperature on gas emissions were examined. The concentrations of CH4, NH3, CO2 and N2O inside and outside a dairy cow building were measured continuously between February and May together with animal activity and air temperature. The building was naturally ventilated and had a solid concrete floor which sloped towards a central urine gutter. Manure was scraped from the floor once every hour in the daytime and once every second hour at night into a partly covered indoor pit which was emptied daily at 6 a.m. and at 5 p.m. Gas emissions were calculated from the measured gas concentrations and ventilation rates estimated by the CO2 balance method. The animal activity and emission rates of CH4 and NH3 showed significant diurnal variations with two peaks which were probably related to the feeding routine. On an average day, CH4 emissions ranged from 7 to 15 g LU−1 h−1 and NH3 emissions ranged from 0.4 to 1.5 g LU−1 h−1 (1 LU = 500 kg animal weight). Mean emissions of CH4 and NH3 were 10.8 g LU−1 h−1 and 0.81 g LU−1 h−1, respectively. The NH3 emissions were comparable to emissions from tied stall buildings and represented a 4% loss in manure nitrogen. At moderate levels, temperature seems to affect the behaviour of dairy cows and in this study where the daily indoor air temperature ranged from about 5 up to about 20 °C, the daily activity of the cows decreased with increasing indoor air temperature (r = −0.78). Results suggest that enteric fermentation is the main source of CH4 emissions from systems of the type in this study, while NH3 is mainly emitted from the manure. Daily CH4 emissions increased significantly with the activity of the cows (r = 0.61) while daily NH3 emissions increased significantly with the indoor air temperatures (r = 0.66). Daily CH4 emissions were negatively correlated to the indoor air temperature (r = −0.84). This suggests that increased daily indoor air temperatures due to seasonal changes may bring about decreased animal activity which may decrease the release of CH4 from dairy cows. Finally, changes in daily NH3 emissions were influenced more by the indoor air temperature than by the activity of the cows.

Does access to open water affect the health of Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)?

Access to open water is considered good for the welfare of Pekin ducks. These studies investigated the effect that the type of water resource, provided over either straw bedding or a rubber mesh, had on measures of duck health. Pekin strain ducklings (n = 2,600) were managed in pens of 100 on straw over a solid concrete floor. In study 1, one of two water resources (nipple, n = 5 pens; wide-lip bell drinker, n = 5 pens), was located directly over the straw. In study 2, one of three water resources (narrow-lip bell drinker, n = 6 pens; trough, n = 5 pens; and bath, n = 5 pens) was located over a rubber mesh. On d 16, 24, 29, 35, and 43, (study 1) or d 21, 29, 35, and 43 posthatch (study 2), 10 birds were selected from each pen and weighed, and then feather hygiene, footpad dermatitis, eye health, gait score, and nostril condition scores were taken. Treatment had no effect on BW in either study, but in study 2, ducks in the open water treatments had higher scores (P < 0.001) than those in the narrow-lip bell drinker treatment by d 43. In study 1, treatment had no effect on hygiene scores, but scores increased over time (P < 0.001). In study 2, ducks in the narrow-lip bell drinker treatment were dirtier than those in the bath treatment (P = 0.01), with those in the trough treatment being intermediate. In both studies, ducks with bell drinkers had worse gait scores than those in the other treatments (study 1, P < 0.01; study 2, P < 0.05). Treatment had no effect on eye health scores. However, ducks were less likely to have dirty nostrils when provided with more open water resources in both studies (P < 0.01), or were less likely to have blocked nostrils in the trough and bath treatments than in the narrow-lip bell drinker treatment in study 2 (P = 0.01). Provision of open water, particularly over a properly constructed drainage area, improved some aspects of duck health (improved feather hygiene and BW, and fewer dirty and blocked nostrils). However, further work is needed to investigate these treatments on a commercial scale.

A cross-sectional study of prevalence and risk factors for foot lesions and abnormal posture in lactating sows on commercial farms in England

AbstractA cross-sectional study of lactating sows in 71 commercial pig herds in England was carried out to estimate the prevalence of foot lesions and abnormal posture and investigate the associated risks. Observational data were collected on the standing posture, lesions on the hind left foot, and the pen the sow was housed in for 233 sows. The prevalence of foot lesions was 76.8% and 10.8% of lactating sows had abnormal posture. Sows housed on slatted floors during pregnancy had an associated increased risk of heel flaps but a reduced risk of toe erosion, compared with sows housed on solid concrete floors with bedding during pregnancy. There was an increased risk of abnormal posture in lactating sows housed on slatted floors during pregnancy compared with those housed on solid concrete floors with straw bedding during pregnancy. In addition, there was an increased risk of abnormal posture in lactating sows with wounds on the limbs and erosions on the toe and the heel/sole. The positive association between abnormal posture and foot lesions suggests that these lesions might be painful. Housing sows on solid floors during pregnancy might reduce the risk of abnormal posture, and certain foot lesions, in sows during lactation. However, posture is a less sensitive measure of lameness than gait, and the nature of the causal relationship between foot lesions and lameness requires further investigation.

A cross sectional study of the prevalence, risk factors and population attributable fractions for limb and body lesions in lactating sows on commercial farms in England.

BackgroundLesions on sows' limbs and bodies are an abnormality that might impact on their welfare. The prevalence of and risks for limb and body lesions on lactating sows on commercial English pig farms were investigated using direct observation of the sows and their housing.ResultsThe prevalence of lesions on the limbs and body were 93% (260/279) and 20% (57/288) respectively. The prevalence of limb and body lesions was significantly lower in outdoor-housed sows compared with indoor-housed sows. Indoor-housed sows had an increased risk of wounds (OR 6.8), calluses (OR 8.8) and capped hock (OR 3.8) on their limbs when housed on fully slatted floors compared with solid concrete floors. In addition, there was an increased risk of bursitis (OR 2.7), capped hock (OR 2.3) and shoulder lesions (OR 4.8) in sows that were unwilling to rise to their feet. There was a decreased risk of shoulder lesions (OR 0.3) and lesions elsewhere on the body (OR 0.2) in sows with more than 20 cm between their tail and the back of the crate compared with sows with less than 10 cm.ConclusionThe sample of outdoor housed sows in this study had the lowest prevalence of limb and body lesions. In lactating sows housed indoors there was a general trend for an increased risk of limb and body lesions in sows housed on slatted floors compared with those housed on solid concrete floors with bedding. Sows that were less responsive to human presence and sows that had the least space to move within their crates had an additional increased risk of lesions.