Solar Desalination Research Articles

3D hydrogel-based salt resistant self-floating solar-driven interfacial evaporator with efficient water-lifting capacity for desalination

Solar desalination has been extensively researched as a promising way to address freshwater shortages. However, developing a salt resistant solar evaporator that can be easily extended and manufactured is still a challenge in practical applications. In this work, a 3D hydrogel-based salt resistant self-floating solar-driven interfacial evaporator with efficient water-lifting capacity was proposed using the prepared hydrogel with carbon black (CB) nanoparticles and extruded polystyrene (XPS) board as raw materials. The experimental results implied that the developed evaporator had the highest evaporation rate and evaporation efficiency at 0.05 g CB loading, which were 1.70 kg m-2h−1 and 92.8 % at a light intensity of 1 kW/m−2(−|-). Moreover, the evaporator also displayed prominent salt resistance in the evaporation of brine with high salinity and outstanding stability after 10 cycles. Significantly, the outdoor experiment demonstrated that 1 m2 evaporator can generate 5923.5 g freshwater per day, which was enough to meet the daily requirement of two adults for drinking water. In addition, the physical fields of the hydrogel with CB nanoparticles of the evaporator at evaporation equilibrium were simulated to analyze its long-term and high-performance operation capability. All in all, the 3D hydrogel-based salt resistant self-floating solar-driven interfacial evaporator with efficient water-lifting capacity presented an enormous application prospect in the field of solar desalination.

Dual-crosslinked and dual-networked hydrogels with high mechanical properties for cost-effective solar water desalination and purification

Dual-crosslinked and dual-networked hydrogels with high mechanical properties for cost-effective solar water desalination and purification

Calla lily-inspired 3D evaporator: A dual interface design for enhanced solar water evaporation

Due to the exponential growth of the global population, groundwater resources have long been insufficient to meet the escalating demand for potable water. In recent years, interfacial solar stream generation (ISSG) technology has emerged as a pivotal approach in generating clean water. The paramount performance factors of solar thermal evaporators encompass their exceptional light absorption capacity, efficient water transport, and effective thermal management. Among these factors, the 3D interface evaporator stands out due to its inherent advantages and ingenious structural design that enhances overall performance. In this study, the structure of calla lilies was used as inspiration, we propose a novel design featuring a 3D inverted conical double-sided evaporator (3D-ASIE) which effectively traps sunlight within its core, thereby augmenting light absorption capabilities while simultaneously forming a dual-evaporation interface. The inverted conical structure comprises two cellulose/TiN aerogel films with superior light absorption and heat insulation properties along with a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) hydrophilic film that is skillfully bent and assembled together. To ensure continuous water supply during evaporation, the tail end of the hydrophilic membrane is immersed in water. During interfacial evaporation process, activation of the outer photothermal layer of our 3D-ASIE facilitates steam diffusion along both inner and outer surfaces of the inverted cone structure concurrently resulting in an impressive dual-evaporative effect. Under sunlight intensity level at 1 kW m−2, our 3D-ASIE exhibits remarkable performance with an evaporation flux reaching up to 2.97 kg m−2 h−1 alongside an efficiency as high as 94.7 %, thus demonstrating immense potential for large-scale solar desalination applications.

Real-Time Environmental Design Parameters and their Impact on the Performance of Passive Basin Solar Still: A Dynamic CFD Modeling Approach

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach was used in this work to investigate various design and environmental factors and their impact on the performance of passive basin solar stills (PBSS). This requires using the ANSYS software to build a sophisticated geometrical solar still model with the associated solar cells. The impact of solar cell configuration on energy optimization was determined by analyzing the developed system in both series and parallel configurations. Accuracy of simulation results was ensured in the model by introducing a meshing technique that consisted of>2 million components. The results (for static pressure analysis) indicated the absence of any high-pressure-induced strains after evaluating the performance metrics (static pressure, velocity, and energy distribution) for impact on the system using > 200 iterations; this suggests that the system design is balanced. Hence, the performance of solar stills can be improved by using new materials and design configurations as shown in this work. This study has improved knowledge of solar water desalination and other forms of renewable energy sources for related applications.

Black Body-Inspired Chemically Oxidized Nanostructures with Varied Perforations: A New Frontier in Solar Desalination

Ideal black bodies absorb all electromagnetic energy without reflecting it. As it does not reflect or transmit light, it appears black when cold. Heated black bodies emit black body radiation, a temperature-dependent spectrum. This idea helps scientists and engineers comprehend heat radiation and design efficient solar desalination absorbers. This work uses the black body concept to create three non-contact nanostructured single-slope solar stills (NCNSSSs) with varied perforation diameters (2.4 mm, 3.2 mm, and 3.8 mm). The chemical oxidation of mirror-polished perforated stainless steel 304 sheets resulted in highly absorptive top surfaces with 90% absorptivity. The structures’ bottom surfaces were coated with a commercial high-emissivity coating to make them 85% emissive. The developed non-contact nanostructures absorbed maximum solar light and converted it into infrared radiation using a highly emissive bottom coating and a very absorptive top coating. Water, an excellent absorber of infrared (IR) radiation, readily absorbs the IR radiations and evaporates through the perforations, thus producing a desalination effect. Experiments were conducted parallelly in three NCNSSSs under the same weather conditions at three water depths. It was observed that non-contact nanostructure perforation diameters affected solar still performance. The NCNSSS-3 (3.8 mm) achieved a 9.89% and 13.47% higher productivity than the NCNSSS-2 (3.2 mm) and NCNSSS-1 (2.4 mm) at a 5 mm water depth. Additionally, fouling studies, expedited corrosion studies, and water quality assessments (TDS, salinity, fluoride, chlorides, nitrates, sodium) were performed. Water eminence examinations confirmed that the collected freshwater was bacteria-free and safe to drink.

Efficient Light-Driven Ion Pumping for Deep Desalination via the Vertical Gradient Protonation of Covalent Organic Framework Membranes.

Traditional desalination methods face criticism due to high energy requirements and inadequate trace ion removal, whereas natural light-driven ion pumps offer superior efficiency. Current synthetic systems are constrained by short exciton lifetimes, which limit their ability to generate sufficient electric fields for effective ion pumping. We introduce an innovative approach utilizing covalent-organic framework membranes that enhance light absorption and reduce charge recombination through vertical gradient protonation of imine linkages during acid-catalyzed liquid-liquid interfacial polymerization. This technique creates intralayer and interlayer heterojunctions, facilitating interlayer hybridization and establishing a robust built-in electric field under illumination. These improvements enable the membranes to achieve remarkable ion transport across extreme concentration gradients (2000:1), with a transport rate of approximately 3.2 × 1012 ions per second per square centimeter and reduce ion concentrations to parts per billion. This performance significantly surpasses that of conventional reverse osmosis systems, representing a major advancement in solar-powered desalination technology by substantially reducing energy consumption and secondary waste.

Biochar‑based hydrogel evaporator with vertically arranged channels for efficient solar steam generation, desalination and water purification

Three-dimensional (3D) evaporators are regarded as a promising solution to the global water crisis due to their extensive evaporation surface area and minimal diffuse reflection. Nevertheless, the limited water supply capacity of 3D evaporators may greatly hinder their highly efficient evaporation and widespread application. In this study, we designed and developed a biochar-based hydrogel 3D evaporator with vertically aligned channels (CAM), composed of rice straw-derived carbon, hydrogel, and sodium alginate. The material combination and vertical structure endow the CAM with high light-absorbing capacity (∼100 %), exceptional photothermal conversion efficiency (126.08 %), rapid water transport, and efficient evaporation (1.88 kg·m-2h-1, 1KW/m2). Additionally, the CAM presents an effective and stably evaporation rate in saline solutions without salt deposition, and also demonstrates outstanding purification in various wastewater. This research provides a prospective biochar‑based hydrogel evaporator for efficient solar steam generation, desalination and water purification.

Theoretical and experimental investigation of a pilot-scale solar air-heated humidification dehumidification desalination system

Among the various humidification dehumidification desalination (HDD) system configurations, the air-heated cycle has demonstrated promising results in small lab-scale setup investigations, whereas pilot-scale studies are lacking. This study theoretically and experimentally investigates the performance of a pilot-scale flat-plate solar air collector-powered HDD unit. An optical-thermal model for a solar air collector and a transport model based on heat and mass transfer for the dehumidifier have been developed and validated using experimental data. The triangular-shaped turbulators on the absorber plate of a solar collector with relative roughness pitches of 2.3, 4.61, and 6.92 are built and optimized for maximum distillate yield. Perforated turbulators with open area ratios of 5.5 %, 12.25 %, and 21.8 % are evaluated. To reduce distillate production costs in the HDD system, naturally available wood apple shell with drilled holes is tested in the humidifier. Outdoor test results revealed that at an average solar intensity of 712 W/m2, the proposed system achieved a maximum distillate yield and gain output ratio of 17.34 kg/day and 0.65, respectively. Wood apple shell packing demonstrated better distillate yield, gain output ratio, and humidifier performance potential factor compared to the commercially available raschig ring and cascade mini-ring packings. Moreover, the optimal performance of the solar air collector with solid turbulators was obtained at a relative roughness pitch of 4.61 due to sufficient longitudinal space to effectively prevent flow separation and reattachment of the free shear layer. Turbulators with a 12.25 % open area ratio exhibited the highest Nusselt number and low friction factor.

A multilayer control architecture for greenhouse crop production in agro-industrial districts: Conceptual framework, prospects and challenges

Agriculture is one of the most important primary-industry sectors, in which automatic control plays a crucial role in ensuring sustainability. This paper presents a conceptual view for a greenhouse control architecture that merges past and present technological trends. The main prospects and challenges are described, considering not only aspects of crop production but also other issues related to fruit quality, the environment, resource-use efficiency within the energy-water-food nexus, and IoT-based solutions. Illustrative results are shown for the different layers of the architecture, focusing on process control and optimal resource dispatch for an experimental case using a real Mediterranean greenhouse that is part of an agro-industrial district also comprising a solar desalination plant and multiple auxiliary systems. These results contribute to understanding the different techniques and paradigms employed, and their consequent advantages and disadvantages.

RuO2−MXene nanocomposite coated on bio-degradable loofah sponge for enhanced rate of evaporation in interfacial solar desalination

Worldwide pure drinkable and usable water demand is increasing such as in the regions of Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia majority of the population are facing extreme water scarcity. Among numerous types of solar desalination technologies, interfacial solar steam generation (ISSG) has the potential practical applications on wastewater treatments, power generation, sterilization, and soil remediation beyond the application of only on desalination. In this research, MXene@RuO2 nanocomposite coated on bio-degradable luffa sponge is harnessed where the synthesis of MXene-RuO2@LS is done hydrothermally. As ruthenium oxide (RuO2) is a metal oxide with having the capability of ensuring effective surface area by preventing the restacking of MXene which happens due to their inherently high interfacial van der Waals interactions and surface energy. Bio-degradable luffa sponge is the best example of an evaporator with large pore spaces and rigid structure. As a result, the novel MXene-RuO2@LS absorber exhibited the rate of evaporation about 1.5 Kgm−2h−1 under 1 sun illumination for about 1 h. Furthermore, the prepared sample achieved the total energy consumption of 90.85 % with total heat loss of only 9.15 %. UV–Vis characterization was performed with improved absorptivity of 1.2, enhancement of transmittance by FTIR analysis of about 95 %, XRD analysis, SEM image analysis and water contact angle are evaluated as well. In addition, the collected desalinated water is tested where noticeable reduction of major ion concentrations and salinity achieved. All these enhanced results indicate the practical application of interfacial solar desalination.

Stacked solar distiller using water to storage heat for high-temperature evaporation

Solar stills can produce freshwater with low or even no carbonization to alleviate the problem of freshwater resource scarcity. However solar distiller's operation period is limited by the intermittence of solar energy, and the Gained-output ratio (GOR) is determined by operation temperature. To further develop efficient solar distillers, this paper investigates a stacked solar distiller with high evaporation temperature, utilizing water to storage heat. A mathematical model of a triple-stacked solar distiller (TSD) was established to describe the internal heat and mass transfer processes. Then an experimental device was built. The experiments under steady-heating and outdoor solar-heating have been conducted. The steady-heating testing results show that, when the evaporation temperature of TSD reaches 79.9 °C, the GOR reaches 2.00. The theoretical model can accurately predict the operating parameters of the distiller, with the deviation of the theoretical temperature from the experimental value within 0.9 °C and the GOR deviation ranging from 2.2 % to 21.0 %, under steady-heating testing. The outdoor testing results show that, at an average daily irradiance of 606 W/m2, the maximum evaporation temperature is above 90.0 °C, achieving a water yield rate of 2.53 kg/(h·m2) and the maximum instant GOR of system closing to 2.23. Combined with nighttime water yield attributing to heating storage, a water yield of 28.00 kg/(d·m2) can be achieved. This research may provide a good scheme for the scenario of small-scale distributed solar desalination demands.

Low-Cost, Eco-Friendly, and High-Performance 3D Laser-Induced Graphene Evaporator for Continuous Solar-Powered Water Desalination.

Water scarcity has become a global challenge attributed to climate change, deforestation, population growth, and increasing water demand. While advanced water production plants are prevalent in urban areas, remote islands and sparsely populated regions face significant obstacles in establishing such technologies. Consequently, there is an urgent need for efficient, affordable, and sustainable water production technologies in these areas. Herein, we present a facile approach utilizing an ultrashort-pulsed laser to directly convert cotton fabric into graphene under ambient conditions. The resulting laser-induced graphene (LIG) demonstrates the highest light absorption efficiency of 99.0% and a broad absorption range (250-2500 nm). As an excellent solar absorber, LIG on cotton fabric can efficiently absorb 98.6% of the total solar irradiance and its surface temperature can reach 84.5 °C under sunlight without optical concentration. Moreover, we propose a cost-effective 3D LIG evaporator (LIGE) for continuous solar-powered desalination. This innovative design effectively mitigates salt formation issues and enhances the steam generation efficiency. The water evaporation rate and the solar-to-vapor conversion efficiency are measured to be around 1.709 kg m-2 h-1 and 95.1%, respectively, which surpass those reported in previous studies. The simplicity, durability, and continuous operational capability of the 3D LIGE offer promising prospects to address the growing challenges in global water scarcity.

A typha orientalis-inspired 3D Janus solar evaporator with controllable wettability for highly efficient and stable solar desalination

Solar-powered interfacial evaporators, though promising for seawater desalination and wastewater treatment, but suffer from the problems of monolithic structure and complex preparation. It is of great importance to develop a multi-layered solar evaporator that possesses stable and high-efficiency photothermal performance. Our research employs simple liquid-phase polymerization and chemical deposition methods to achieve this. The objective of this study is to develop a highly efficient solar evaporator, designated as SA/MWCNTs@PPy/MWCNTs-NH2@PU (SMPMPU), by integrating stearic acid (SA), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), polypyrrole (PPy), and aminated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs-NH2) within a polyurethane (PU) matrix. Inspired by typha orientalis, this evaporator boasts a highly antibacterial, self-floating Janus bilayer structure. This double-layered Janus solar evaporator utilizes the capillary adsorption effect to regulate the flow of water. It slows down heat transfer and significantly improves energy utilization efficiency. The resulting SMPMPU solar evaporator demonstrates a solar steam conversion efficiency with an evaporation rate of 2.40 kg·m−2·h−1, which is attributed to the material's efficient absorption of light energy. Its evaporation efficiency under one sun illumination reaches 92.76 %, which can be credited to the Janus interface facilitating the absorption and evaporation of water molecules. The Janus bilayer structured solar evaporator developed in this study holds great promise and is anticipated to find widespread applications in seawater desalination and other related fields.

Making Interfacial Solar Evaporation of Seawater Faster than Fresh Water.

Interfacial solar evaporation-based seawater desalination is regarded as one of the most promising strategies to alleviate freshwater scarcity. However, the solar evaporation rate of real seawater is significantly constricted by the ubiquitous salts present in seawater. In addition to the common issue of salt accumulation on the evaporation surface during solar evaporation, strong hydration between salt ions and water molecules leads to a lower evaporation rate for real seawater compared to pure water. Here a facile and general strategy is developed to reverse this occurrence, that is, making real seawater evaporation faster than pure water. By simply introducing specific mineral materials into the floating photothermal evaporator, ion exchange at air-water interfaces directly results in a decrease in seawater evaporation enthalpy, and consequently achieves much higher seawater evaporation rates compared to pure water. This process is spontaneously realized during seawater solar evaporation. Considering the current enormous clean water production from evaporation-based desalination plants, such an evaporation performance improvement can remarkably increase annual clean water production, benefiting millions of people worldwide.

Synergistic Impact of Magnets and Fins in Solar Desalination: Energetic, Exergetic, Economic, and Environmental Analysis

This study investigates the effectiveness of combining magnets with parabolic and truncated fins in enhancing the distillation process of solar stills. The integration of magnets accelerated evaporation rates, while the fins increased the heat absorption area, resulting in improved output, vis-à-vis traditional solar stills. A comparative assessment revealed that the parabolic fin solar still (PFS) with magnets outperformed the truncated fin solar still (TCFS), producing 20%, 15%, and 16% more distillate at three different depths (1, 2, and 3 cm). The superior performance of the PFS is attributed to the magnetism of the water and the fins’ more extensive surface area for heat absorption. Efficiency measurements at a water depth of 1 cm showed that the PFS achieved the maximum energy and exergy efficiencies at 30.49% and 8.85%, respectively, compared with TCFS’s 25.23% and 6.22%. Economically, the PFS setup proved more feasible, with a 20.9% lower cost per liter of distilled water than TCFS. Additionally, the environmental impact assessment indicated a significant reduction in CO2 emissions, potentially generating revenues of approximately USD 1242.32 through carbon credits. These results reflect a considerable margin to enhance the efficiency of solar desalination through well-planned adjustments, which bodes well for the future of optimized solar distillation systems from an economic and environmental perspective.

6E evaluation of an innovative humidification dehumidification solar distiller unit: An experimental investigation

This work aims to enhance the productivity, efficiency, energy utilization, feasibility, and environmental outcomes of solar desalination systems via representing an innovative humidification dehumidification solar distillation unit coupled with a built-in air solar heater and photovoltaic thermal unit. The air solar heater was further improved by the incorporation of copper chips as thermal energy-storing materials for extending the desalination process during the sun’s hours. Three distinct humidifier beds, including plastic waste (case A), wick materials (case B), and cellulose paper (case C) were tested and compared regarding system temperatures and hourly and daily drinkable water yield. Additionally, a 6E analysis was assessed and evaluated in terms of energy, exergy, economic, exergoeconomic, exergoenvironmental, and exergoenviroeconomic analysis for all the cases. According to the outcomes, the humidification dehumidification solar distiller with cellulose paper yielded the highest productivity and 6E outcomes where the daily drinkable water, thermal efficiency, and exergy efficiency were estimated as 7.78 L/m2, 73.45 %, and 5.3 %, outperforming the CSD by nearly 142.59 %, 144.02 %, and 229.19 %, respectively. Moreover, the price of drinkable water and the payback time decreased to 0.0099 $/L and 0.12 years, which represents a reduction of 68.27 % and 69.23 %, respectively, at an exergoeconomic factor of 4.19 kWh/$. Furthermore, the amount of CO2 reduced was increased to 3.92 tons, which is associated with earned credits of carbon of 56.78$. Finally, for this case, the HDH humidifier efficiency, dehumidifier effectiveness, and gain output ratio maximum and mean values were 96.66 and 84.5 %, 85.61 and 78.96 %, and 1.86 and 1.08, respectively.

Highly Efficient Porous Glass Solar Water Evaporator

AbstractThe global water crisis, exacerbated by excessive use and pollution, has resulted in energy scarcity and threats. Solar desalination provides a sustainable fix, with researchers developing photothermal materials and designs to improve efficiency and sustainability. Glass materials, with their exceptional chemical stability, are suitable for extreme desalination in acidic and alkaline conditions. In this work, we have developed a porous glass evaporator (PGE) with exceptional water evaporation efficiency, achieved through a novel fabrication method that blends glass powders with soluble salts to create structure with continuous pores. The evaporator's microstructure comprises micrometer‐scale pores that form interconnected porous channels, facilitating efficient water transport and preventing salt deposition. Under one sun irradiation, the PGE exhibits superior solar evaporation performance in pure water, achieving a rate of 2.21 kg m−2 h−1, with an evaporation efficiency of 98%. In more complex media, such as seawater and methylene blue solution, the PGE also displays excellent evaporation capabilities, reaching rates of 2.08 and 2.47 kg m−2 h−1, respectively. Even after sustained alternation between acidic and alkaline treatments, the PGE retains an impressive evaporation rate of over 2.0 kg m−2 h−1, coupled with structural robustness, making it a promising candidate for practical applications in extreme environments.

Enhanced photoelectric desalination of Co3O4@NC/BiVO4 photoanode via in-situ construction of hole transport layer

The solar-driven photoelectrochemical desalination (SD-PED) technology, as a new emerging desalination technique, has been developed and attracted the increasing attention. However, practical application remains hampered by several constraints, including the rapid deterioration of photocurrent, and the long-term stability of system. In this research, MOF-derived nitrogen-doped carbon@Co3O4/BVO (Co3O4@NC/BVO) heterostructured photoanode was design for efficient and durable solar driven redox desalination. It exhibits an initial photocurrent of 2.40 mA/cm2 and a desalination rate of 69.01 μg/(cm2·min) in the zero-bias state using the light as the driving force, without consuming electrical energy. Furthermore, the solar energy consumption of the photoanode is 0.187 μmol/J. The salt removal rate fluctuates within 1.36 μg/(cm2·min) throughout five cycles without any substantial decrease. Photo-luminescence, EIS and Mott-Schottky analysis are also performed to investigate interface reaction, charge separation and transfer mechanism between photoanode and electrolyte. The analysis of the charge-transfer paths on the heterojunction interface is conducted through in situ irradiation XPS. Further analysis of the generation and separation of •OH and h+ in the Co3O4@NC/BVO photoanode using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) showed that Co3O4@NC as an efficient hole transfer layer can effectively promote the separation and transfer of photo-generated electrons and holes. The excellent desalination performance is attributed to the synergistic effect of electron transfer in the Co3O4@NC/BVO heterojunction and hole transport in the Co3O4@NC efficient hole transport layer. This work is significant for the development of solar redox flow desalination.

CFD analysis of rotation effect on flow patterns and heat transfer enhancement in a horizontal spiral tube heat exchanger

This study explores the enhanced thermal performance of heat exchangers utilizing spirally coiled tubes, particularly in applications such as heating saltwater in solar desalination plants, which require elevated heat transfer coefficients. A numerical investigation is conducted to assess the impact of mechanically rotating horizontal spiral tubes on flow patterns and temperature profiles along their length. A detailed physical model was developed using COMSOL Multiphysics software. The findings from computational fluid dynamics simulations indicate that mechanical rotation significantly modifies both velocity and temperature gradients at each cross-section of the tube. This rotation effectively reduces the formation of thermal hotspots in the outer regions, thereby improving and accelerating heat dispersion. Notably, substantial variations in velocity and temperature profiles occur at rotation speeds up to 4 rpm; however, these changes diminish beyond this speed threshold. The study reveals that rotation increases the Nusselt number of the heated flow within the tube by over 145 %. Furthermore, the effects of rotation are more pronounced in smaller diameter tubes compared to larger ones. Ultimately, the performance factor indicates that the benefits of enhanced heat transfer outweigh the increased pressure drops associated with tube rotation, validating the effectiveness of the proposed heating system.

Numerical Investigation of Pyramid Solar Stills with PCM‐Nanoparticles and Absorber Fins: Enhanced Thermal Performance for Sustainable Water Desalination

ABSTRACTIn arid regions facing challenges of limited access to potable water and electricity, solar desalination stands out as a promising solution for producing clean water from brackish sources. This research intends to examine and enhance an innovative and sustainable solar desalination system. A computational study is conducted on a pyramid solar still (PSS) combined with a phase‐change material incorporated with nanoparticles, with a variety of absorber fins. The study investigates three configurations: a traditional pyramid–shaped solar still, one with square absorber fins, and another with circular fins. Paraffin wax mixed with Al2O3 nanoparticles is used beneath the absorber fins. Conservation equations are solved using COMSOL Multiphysics. Simulation outcomes demonstrate that the incorporation of finned absorbers, coupled with elevated water temperatures, significantly enhances the yield of the improved PSS compared with its conventional counterpart. The square‐finned absorber PSS exhibits a substantial increase in total accumulated productivity over the conventional design. Moreover, the PSS with square‐finned absorbers demonstrates an impressive average peak daily thermal efficiency improvement of 49.19% compared with a conventional solar still. This study highlights the effectiveness of the modified PSS as a superior option for household water generation.