Solar Mini-grids Research Articles

Understanding solar minigrid sustainability and impact through a holistic Key Performance Indicator framework

Understanding solar minigrid sustainability and impact through a holistic Key Performance Indicator framework

Scales of accountability: Solar mini-grids and clean energy for all in Uganda

There is great hope pinned on solar mini-grids to fulfil universal rural electrification targets and enable clean energy access, especially in low-income African countries such as Uganda. Yet Ugandan realities are complex, with many unelectrified households in villages the electric grid serves, and varied experiences with the few solar mini-grids implemented in recent years, indicating limited downward accountability. Crucially, large solar plants have arrived, making it timely to resolve the dilemma of just clean energy provision both in and from rural areas. Yet little research on energy transitions in this context exists to explain its political economic complexity. We draw on field visits to three solar mini-grids with contrasting performances, to Uganda's largest 20 MW solar plant, through dozens of villages, and on meetings with the regional utility and the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development. This is supplemented by knowledge of Uganda's energy policy through document analysis and lived experience. We adapt accountability analysis to deploy a novel ‘scales of accountability’ framework at multiple spatial scales of solar deployment. Our analysis offers insights on the challenges Uganda must address to achieve the potential associated with solar mini-grids and multi-scalar solar energy transitions to achieve universal clean energy access.

Increasing electricity access for health facilities in Ghana through solar powered mini-grids—a GIS-based energy system modelling approach

The research aims to identify which healthcare facilities (HCFs) in Ghana are suitable for electrification using photovoltaic mini-grids to increase their energy self-sufficiency and reliability of services provided. Additionally, the study categorises the HCFs in two groups: those with and without or with poor access to electricity supply, identify settlements within their catchment area, and determine the electricity demand for identified HCF sites and their surrounding communities. The research assesses the most suitable mini-grid system setup to electrify identified HCF sites and the impact of including the demand of surrounding communities into the energy system modelling. Finally, the study aims to determine the accumulated solar mini-grid potential to electrify all identified HCF sites. The study findings highlight the importance of integrated planning between the health and energy sectors to ensure high-quality health services. Solar mini-grids are identified as a promising solution for electrifying HCFs and improving energy self-sufficiency. However, it is recommended to avoid transferring findings between different types of health facilities due to their unique characteristics. The study also emphasizes the importance of balancing the energy flow and stabilizing the energy system through the combination of HCFs and surrounding communities’ demand. It is crucial to assess the electricity demand carefully based on context-specific characteristics, such as the type of HCF and the number of households considered. Overall, the study provides valuable insights into the potential of solar mini-grids to increase energy self-sufficiency in HCFs and the importance of careful planning and context-specific assessments.

SMS based reservoir condition monitoring sensor system for pumped hydro storage in mini-grids

Solar mini-grids are a cost-effective and efficient method of improving energy access in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in low-income communities. However, conventional battery storage systems have reduced the affordability of solar mini-grid-generated electricity, necessitating the development of alternative energy storage systems such as pumped hydro storage to replace lithium-ion batteries. This paper introduces a model for an SMS-based fluid parameter monitoring system to provide visibility of reservoir conditions during peak and off-peak periods. The model uses hardware such as voltage regulators, sensors, microcontrollers, and C- programming language software. Sensors monitor various parameters in the reservoir and penstock, transmitting signals to a microcontroller for analysis. The results are relayed to a display unit and personnel's mobile phones for alert notifications, ensuring precise and accurate reporting. Simulation results show the reliability of the design to monitor water levels, water temperature, flow rate, and transmission through SMS to mobile devices for timely reporting. The paper recommends the development and commercialization of this model for larger applications, such as monitoring dams for irrigation and power generation.

Social and economic impact analysis of solar mini-grids in rural Africa: a cohort study from Kenya and Nigeria

This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of the social and economic effects of solar mini-grids in rural African settings, specifically in Kenya and Nigeria. A group of 2658 household heads and business owners connected to mini-grids over the last five years were interviewed both before and one year after their connection. These interviews focused on changes in gender equality, productivity, health, safety, and economic activity. The results show notable improvements in all areas. Economic activities and productivity increased significantly among the connected households and businesses. The median income of rural Kenyan community members quadrupled. Gender equality also improved, with women gaining more opportunities in decision making and business. Health and safety enhancements were linked to reduced use of hazardous energy sources like kerosene lamps. The introduction of solar mini-grids not only transformed the energy landscape but also led to broad socioeconomic benefits in these rural areas. The research highlights the substantial impact of decentralized renewable energy on the social and economic development of rural African communities. Its findings are crucial for policymakers, development agencies, and stakeholders focused on promoting sustainable energy and development in Africa.

Performance evaluation of solar PV mini grid system in Nepal: a case study Thabang and Sugarkhal

This article investigates the performance metrics of two solar mini-grid systems, Thabang Solar Mini-Grid (TSMG) and Sugarkhal Solar Mini-Grid (SSMG), based on secondary live data, collected from Renewable Energy for Rural Livelihood (RERL) and PVsyst software 7.4 spanning the years 2021–2023. Notably, the highest irradiance levels were recorded in April for both TSMG and SSMG. TSMG exhibited an energy generation of 83.206 MWh/year in 2021 and 112.140 MWh/year in 2022, with a peak sun hour (PSH) of 5.5 h. Conversely, SSMG energy generated 64.14 MWh/year in 2021 and 68.79 MWh/year in 2022, with a PSH of 5.7 h. The capture loss of SSGM recorded 0.239 kWh/day to 3.322 kWh/day in 2021 and 0.082 kWh/day to 2.086 kWh/day in 2022. Also, the capture loss of TSGM recorded 1.573 kWh/day to 5.011 kWh/day in 2021 and 0.470 kWh/day to 4.261 kWh/day in 2023. The efficiency of SSMG is consistently higher efficiency compared to TSMG. The capture factor of SSMG increased from 9.76% in 2021 to 10.47% in 2022, while of TSMG 6.33% in 2021 to 8.53% in 2023. The findings provide valuable insights into the comparative performance of these solar mini-grid systems, contributing to the optimization and improvement of solar energy generation in diverse environmental conditions.

Community-based centralized solar mini-grid management for rural electrification: Evidence from remote villages

Centralized solar mini-grid Program (PLTS Terpusat) is a policy issued by the Indonesian government to assist rural electrification in remote villages. Muara Enggelam, Labuangkallo and Balikukup villages are remote villages that have received centralized solar mini-grid grants from the Central and Provincial Governments. This study aims to capture community-based centralized solar mini-grid management for rural electrification in remote villages based on a logic model perspective. Data collection was carried out qualitatively by conducting interviews with local authority, community leaders, business actors, community, and solar minigrid managers unit. The results of the study show that solar off-grid managed by the community includes: (1) Inputs: community involvement, technical and managerial competence, and sustainable budget; (2) Processes: integrated with business local, community contribution, community commitment, and monev; (3) Outputs: rural electrification, and socioeconomic benefit. However, there are several obstacles in the management of the Solar off-grid in Labuangkallo and Balikukup Village, namely the community’s commitment to providing monthly contributions and the weak leadership of the village government in managing the Solar off-grid.

Techno-Economic Feasibility Analysis of 143kW Solar Mini Grid for Rural Electrification in Gokule Village - A Case Study

Techno-Economic Feasibility Analysis of 143kW Solar Mini Grid for Rural Electrification in Gokule Village - A Case Study

Performance assessment and resilience of solar mini-grids for sustainable energy access in Ghana

Mini-grids are increasingly adopted as a solution to extending electricity to remote communities in Africa. However, the system's resilience to meet increasing demand amidst degrading performance over time continues to be challenging. This study assessed mini-grid performance and explored factors that should be considered in scaling up mini-grids for sustainability in five island communities in Ghana's Volta Lake. Power generation and load data, visual inspection and thermal imaging data, and electrical systems performance characteristics data were collected and analysed using data loggers installed on site, the IEA PVPS Task 13 guidelines, and the IEC-TS 61724-3: 2016 guidelines, respectively. The study's findings indicate that the solar power conversion efficiency of the mini-grids was generally low and had a 25% - 45% performance ratio. This low efficiency was due to inefficiencies in the battery bank, distribution losses, and unused losses. The overall system efficiency of the mini-grids ranged from 4% to 7%. This is consistent with the literature, which reports that PV power systems in tropical climates have an efficiency of 5% – 15%. The research emphasises the importance of system maintenance, load management, and considering climate change's impact on mini-grid reliability and sustainability.

Study of major solar energy mini-grid initiatives in Zambia

Solar mini-grids hold the promise of providing sustainable electricity to the 600 million people without access to electricity mostly across rural Africa. However, solar mini-grids are in their infancy and face a number of sustainability challenges. This paper provides a critical study of the financial, technical, environmental, and social sustainability of five major solar mini-grids in Zambia, viz., 48 kW Magodi mini-grid in Lundazi, 52 kW Katamanda mini-grid in Chipangali, 28 kW Chitandika mini-grid in Chipangali, 24 kW Muhanya mini-grid in Sinda (all in the Eastern Province of Zambia) and 32 kW Chibwika mini-grid in Mwinilunga in the North Western Province of Zambia.None of the five solar mini-grids is fully sustainable financially and technically. Economic tariffs that can sustain both capital and operational expense are mostly unaffordable to rural people due to their low-income levels. Challenges of lack of technical support, poor operations, and maintenance are also major causes of unsustainability. All solar mini-grids are running on an ad-hoc and/or pilot basis without a well-thought-out plan of operations and business model. The specific challenges facing the Zambian mini-grids include (i) incorrect sizing of the mini-grids during the planning stage, (ii) use of substandard components and/or lack of technical support, (iii) inefficient operation of the mini-grid by a government agency or the community without adequate technical support, (iv) wastage of subsidies being provided to the private sector without aligning it with diverse interests and expectations, and (v) ad-hoc and inappropriately structured tariff plans.For both technical and financial efficiency, the involvement of the private sector is cardinal. A well-thought-out public-private partnership model for the construction, operation, and maintenance of solar mini-grids is needed. In place of an up-front subsidy as being given currently, smart subsidies which should align the interests and expectations of the government, the private sector, and the clients should be developed.

Conflict, health, and electricity: An empirical assessment of the electrification of healthcare facilities in Yemen

While the effect of energy on conflict is well-studied, scholars have rarely investigated the impacts of conflict on electricity (setups) and healthcare. Prolonged violence has exacerbated Yemen's energy crisis — a dynamic which has also affected healthcare facilities. We construct and analyse a dataset of healthcare facilities, including their power mix and conflict situation. The study addresses both researchers of the energy-health-conflict nexus and Yemen analysts. We perform interviews, QGIS mapping, hierarchical clustering, and logistic regressions to review the situation, identify relevant patterns, and estimate the conflict's impact.Our analysis reveals that most facilities (58 %) have no electricity, but patterns are diverse and non-trivial. Rural facilities have either never had electricity (‘Deserted Village Units’) or their power has been cut off (‘Brownout Stations’). In contrast, some facilities in cities have switched to sophisticated hybrid systems (‘War-torn City Hospitals’). A large, spatially concentrated group of mid-sized facilities managed to go from no electricity to all-solar (‘Solar Centres’). The role of conflict is non-monotonous and depends on the exposure and type. Both the most-affected and least-affected facilities tend to have electricity, while those in between are left behind. Ground combat decreases the probability of obtaining solar energy, while airstrikes do not. Knowledge and knowhow remain a strong lever to support development, e.g. by promoting hybrid systems and solar mini-grids. The dynamics showcase the transformative and redistributive moment of conflict which deprives some of electricity but facilitates novel technologies elsewhere. We advocate for research and policy focusing on technological shifts in conflict-affected countries.

Injustices in rural electrification: Exploring equity concerns in privately owned minigrids in Tanzania

Access to electricity is vital for many basic needs, but it is often unaffordable. Since 2008, there has been an increase in private companies providing electricity access in rural areas through solar minigrids in Tanzania. This paper focuses on the different tariffs used in projects in Tanzania and how they distribute costs. Data were collected over eight months of fieldwork in 2019/2020 from six rural communities through interviews, focus groups, surveys, and directly from minigrid companies. I have found that by private companies treating electricity as an economic good communities experience energy injustices. Under many tariffs poorer households pay more per unit than those with higher incomes. Poorer households are less likely to be able to connect and under some tariffs self-disconnect from their electricity service. Barriers such as lack of participation in project development, high tariffs, and high connection fees limit the benefits of rural electrification.

Rural electrification in Africa: a case study of Yebu community solar minigrid

Using field observation and focus group semi-structured interviews, we explored rural electrification dynamics within a rural community setting. We investigated the issues surrounding the emergence, deployment, operation and management of solar minigrid technology within Yebu community in the Federal Capital Territory, north-central Nigeria, and the associated issues that emerged over time. The study revealed that: (1) many solar minigrid energy access interventions do not have a viable business and sustainability plan that guarantees long term impact; (2) a lack of participatory decision making by all concerned stakeholders (from the project conception stage) has hindered the potential of many solar minigrid energy access projects to achieve their intended developmental and economic benefits. The paper concludes by highlighting the key recommendations that can help address these challenges.

A Rising Role for Decentralized Solar Minigrids in Integrated Rural Electrification Planning? Large-Scale, Least-Cost, and Customer-Wise Design of Grid and Off-Grid Supply Systems in Uganda

Increasing Uganda’s low electrification rate is one of the country’s major challenges. Power service is essential to achieve socioeconomic development and poverty reduction, especially in rural areas. This paper shows the advantages of using an integrated (grid and off-grid) electrification model with high geospatial, temporal, and customer-class granularity as the Reference Electrification Model (REM). In universal electrification strategies, REM will help better ascertain the role of minigrids, jointly with grid extension, solar kits, and stand-alone systems. REM has been applied to the Southern Service Territory (SST) to determine the least-cost mix of electrification modes—grid extension, off-grid minigrids, and standalone systems—that satisfies the hourly demand requirements of each customer—residential, commercial, or industrial—considering its individual location. REM incorporates the existing grid layout, the hourly solar local profile, and the catalogs of actual components for network and generation designs. The paper shows that minigrids can provide grid-like service at a significantly lower cost in many circumstances and to a considerable extent. Therefore, minigrid strategies should play a more important role in electrification planning, both transitorily and on a permanent basis, particularly when the central grid suffers from frequent and prolonged blackouts.

Leaving no aspect of sustainability behind: A framework for designing sustainable energy interventions applied to refugee camps

The issues of forced displacement and energy for sustainable development are convergent: an estimated 90% of displaced people globally have no access to electricity, while 85% of refugees are hosted in developing countries. However, few tools to plan and design sustainable energy access interventions have been transposed to displacement settings. This paper presents a novel framework for the holistic planning of energy projects which considers both sustainability aspects and the specificities of displacement settings. The framework is the result of a review of literature which aimed to define a “sustainable energy intervention” in displacement contexts and an assessment of relevant planning tools against this definition. The framework includes the use of an energy delivery model toolkit, an inclusive design approach, an assessment of the desired impacts, energy system modelling, business model design, and an assessment of economic viability. We apply the framework in the design of a solar mini grid of Holl Holl refugee camp in Djibouti, in which a sustainable intervention and business model are proposed that could be compatible with the local conditions. We highlight issues that arise from the humanitarian sector status quo and propose that this framework could help to enhance sustainable energy practices in the humanitarian and development sectors.

Planning sustainable electricity solutions for refugee settlements in sub-Saharan Africa

An inadequate understanding of the energy needs of forcibly displaced populations is one of the main obstacles in providing sustainable and reliable energy to refugees and their host communities. Here, we provide a first-order assessment of the main factors determining the decision to deploy fully renewable mini-grids in almost 300 refugee settlements in sub-Saharan Africa. Using an energy assessment survey and publicly available traditional and earth observation data, we estimate a total electricity demand of 154 GWh yr–1. This figure includes lighting, air circulation and phone charging for 1.15 million households and the estimated demand of almost 59,000 microbusinesses and around 7,000 institutional loads. Using a set of techno-economic modelling tools, we thus compute a corresponding upper-bound total up-front cost of providing electricity access of just over US$1 billion. Deploying solar photovoltaic mini-grids instead of diesel implies avoiding greenhouse gas emissions for 2.86 MtCO2e over 20 years.

Determinants of Uptake of Industrial Solar in Nairobi Metropolitan

Sub-Saharan Africa countries have abundant solar energy estimated in terawatts which can be harnessed to meet ever rising energy needs. Yet there are barriers affecting uptake of industrial solar by industries. This research aimed to establish determinants and how they effect of uptake of industrial solar mini grids in Nairobi Metropolitan area. The study objectives were; to explore the effect of financial capability, influence of Energy Act (2019), effect of business model and influence of public policy awareness on uptake of industrial solar. Descriptive research design was used. Target population was 30 industrial consumers in Nairobi Metropolitan area and three officials; a representative from Ministry of Energy, Kenya Association of Manufactures and one of the developers. The study established that energy regulations had a significant relationship with uptake of industrial solar resulting to delays, corruption and bureaucracy in implementation of energy regulations. Business model had also a significant effect towards uptake of industrial solar due to reliability and investment cost involved. Public policy awareness had a significant effect towards uptake of industrial solar and that promotion of the policy awareness was largely done by developers. The study recommends adoption of net metering, central publicly available database for industrial solar for planning purposes and need to offer affordable interest rates to investors in industrial solar with favourable loan application terms. Keywords: Uptake of Industrial solar, Financial capacity, Business model, Public Policy awareness, Net Metering. DOI: 10.7176/JETP/12-2-02 Publication date: April 30 th 2022

Energy Access for Small Enterprises Sourcing Solar Mini-Grid Electricity in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

Energy Access for Small Enterprises Sourcing Solar Mini-Grid Electricity in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

Factors affecting sales of international solar mini-grids in Tanzania mainland

The research purpose was to investigate factors that affect Sales of International Solar Mini-Grids in Tanzania Mainland. The motivation for the study was because there was evidence of a decline in sales of International Solar Mini-Grids in Mwanza, Dar es Salaam, and Arusha regions. The study used a sample size of 70 respondents, a cross-section survey, primary data, and secondary data. The study used the mixed methods research design. Multiple linear regression was employed in quantitative data analysis with the aid of SPSS. Thematic analysis was conducted to derive themes from the qualitative data and information obtained was utilized to supplement the quantitative data. The study revealed that government policies, more specifically energy policy, significantly affect sales of International Solar Mini-Grids in Tanzania Mainland. In addition, the regulatory framework, particularly tariff, significantly affects sales of International Solar Mini-Grids. Also, customers’ purchasing tendencies were significantly affecting the sales of International Solar Mini-Grids. The findings imply that ignoring the factors affecting sales of International Solar Mini-Grids in Tanzania Mainland might worsen the power sector and solar Mini-Grids sustainability. This work recommends that to foster the sales of International Solar Mini-Grids, the government should have a suitable energy policy and regulatory framework geared to enhance the marketability of electricity and enhance customer purchase. The study contributes to knowledge by offering empirical evidence on renewable energy that will be of paramount importance to other renewable energy stakeholders.

A generic GHG-LCA model of a smart mini grid for decision making using the example of the Don Bosco mini grid in Tema, Ghana

Ghana’s population is in a steady growth, which is accompanied by increasing energy demand. At the same time a significant proportion of the population lack access to the electricity grid. Within the framework of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) access to energy shall be available for everyone (SDG 7). Solar Mini Grids can be used to meet this growing energy demand and give environmentally friendly access to energy in remote regions. Since Solar Mini Grids can be complex systems that require many components such as photovoltaic modules, charge controllers, cables, and battery storage it is crucial to analyze the environmental impacts of these Mini Grids considering the full life cycle. For this purpose, a generic Excel based LCA model has been created to show the optimization potentials of individual system components of Solar Mini Grids and analyze the most environmentally friendly construction. Results for the first case study at the Don Bosco Mini Grid in Tema show that the emissions are highly dependent on the technology and capacity of the energy storage as well as the utilization rate. The utilization rate describes the ratio of the consumed electricity to the produced electricity for cases where a feed in to the national grid is not possible. Therefore, it is important to design the Mini Grid and the energy storage beforehand considering local conditions in a way the environmental impact over the Solar Mini Grid life cycle can be optimized. This can be achieved by using the generic LCA model developed in this paper.