Soils In England Research Articles

Tolkien, the Medieval Robin Hood, and the Matter of the Greenwood

Tolkien, the Medieval Robin Hood, and the Matter of the Greenwood Perry Neil Harrison (bio) Save for perhaps King Arthur and his knights, no legendary figure has had a larger or longer-lasting influence on the British literary tradition than Robin Hood. Yet, despite the ubiquitous power England's legendary figures have held over the country's writings, J.R.R. Tolkien was infamously ambivalent about these national stories. In a letter to Milton Waldman, Tolkien laments, "I was from early days grieved by the poverty of my own beloved country: it had no stories of its own … nothing English, save impoverished chap-book stuff. Of course there was and is all the Arthurian world, but powerful as it is, it is imperfectly naturalized, associated with the soil of Britain but not with English" (Letters 144). Nonetheless, despite Tolkien's reticence to endorse England's legendary figures, recent publications indicate that the author's dissatisfaction with the legends of England did not prevent him from drawing upon these stories while forming his legendarium; in particular, the 2014 publication of his alliterative poem The Fall of Arthur and the subsequent 2017 publication of the collection The Inklings and King Arthur, edited by Sørina Higgins, have helped bring to light the role that Arthur and the "Matter of Britain" played in shaping the author's thought and fiction. Despite the tremendous strides that scholars of Tolkien's works have made in identifying and discussing the role that the Arthurian legend played in shaping Tolkien's literary corpus, they have dedicated very little attention to the ways that Robin Hood and the "Matter of the Greenwood" also influenced the author's works. This absence of scholarly attention is especially notable given the prevalence of several prominent of what might be called heroic outlaws in the legendarium. Numerous times throughout his stories of Middle-earth, Tolkien presents his readers with figures who have been pushed to the margins of civilization by corrupted or misused authority. Although figures such as Aragorn, Barahir, Faramir, and Éomer's éored of Riders of Rohan certainly fit this description, perhaps no character embodies the outlaw spirit as thoroughly as Túrin Turambar. In particular, Tolkien draws upon the earliest Robin Hood rhymes when depicting Túrin's first encounter with the outlaw band and the methods he eventually adopts as the leader of the outlaws. The parallels between Túrin's time [End Page 71] with the outlaw band and the Middle English outlaw rhymes demonstrate that Robin Hood and his Greenwood are distinct and important ingredients in Tolkien's mythopoeia. It should go without saying that Tolkien was familiar with Robin Hood; the figure was, after all, just as ubiquitous in popular culture during the first decades of the twentieth century as he is today. Although works featuring Robin Hood, such as Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, had been prevalent for much of the nineteenth century, it was the 1883 publication and subsequent popularity of Howard Pyle's The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood that led to "an explosion of Robin Hood stories for children in the following fifty years" (Knight, Mythic Biography 136–37). The character's popularity did not escape the notice of the fledgling American film industry. The 1922 theatrical release of the Douglas Fairbanks version of Robin Hood (officially titled Douglas Fairbanks in Robin Hood) was "a huge success with the public—a record 101,000 people saw it in the first week in the New York Capital" (Knight, Complete Study 226–27).1 Yet, for all the success that the Fairbanks film saw, it is Errol Flynn's 1938 The Adventures of Robin Hood that placed Robin Hood most thoroughly in the landscape of popular culture. In addition to achieving financial and critical success, Flynn's take on the outlaw also garnered a nomination for Best Picture at the 11th Academy Awards, and the film remained popular enough to warrant a successful re-release in 1948 (Knight, Complete Study 231). Robin Hood, by all measures, was a force on the written page, on the big screen, and on the cultural landscape. However, the popular versions of Robin Hood put onto the page...

Assessment of Contamination of Soil and Groundwater Due to e-Waste Handling

This paper reveals the magnitude of heavy metal contamination of soil and groundwater in and around an unauthorized e-waste recycling site in Delhi. Though unsafe and unorganized and with the e-waste handling now legally banned in Delhi, the informal sector is still actively involved in dismantling, extracting and disposing of e-waste in certain places on a considerably large scale. The leachate produced by these recycling units contains a large amount of heavy metals which are likely to pollute the groundwater and soil adjoining the recycling sites. This study evaluates the e-waste contamination at such sites by monitoring the potential contaminants at a number of specific monitoring points in Krishna Vihar near Mandoli. The soil and underground water samples are tested for the presence of heavy metals around e-waste recycling and dumping sites using atomic absorption spectrometry. The standard values according to Central Ground Water Board are taken as reference values for water, and standards for agricultural soil in Britain as reference values for soil. The results show that the groundwater and soil in and around these sites have been contaminated by lead, copper, chromium and cadmium to a large extent.

An assessment of subsoil organic carbon stocks inEngland andWales

AbstractIt is estimated that half the soil carbon globally is in the subsoil, but data are scarce. We updated estimates of subsoil organic carbon (OC) inEngland andWales made by Bradleyet al. (2005) using soil and land‐use databases and compared the results with other published data. We estimated that the soils ofEngland andWales contained 1633, 1143 and 506 Tg of OC at 0–30, 30–100 and 100–150 cm depths, respectively. Thus, half of the soilOCwas found below 30 cm depth. Peat soils accounted for the largest proportion, containing 44% of all theOCbelow 30 cm despite their small areal extent, followed by brown soils, surface‐water gley soils, ground‐water gley soils and podzolic soils. Peat soils had more than 25% of their profileOCper unit area in the 100–150 cm depth, whereas most other soils had <8% at this depth. The differences between soil types were consistent with differences in soil formation processes. Differences in depth distributions between land uses were small, but subsoilOCstocks in cultivated soils were generally smaller than in soils under grassland or other land uses. Data on subsoilOCstocks in the literature were scarce, but what there was broadly agreed with the findings of the above database exercise. There was little evidence by which to assess how subsoilOCstocks were changing over time.

Biological Flora of the British Isles:Silene suecica

SummaryThis account presents information on all aspects of the biology ofSilene suecica(Lodd.) Greuter & Burdet (Lychnis alpinaL.) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of theBiologicalFlora of theBritishIsles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history and conservation.Silene suecicais native to the British flora, being found in just two confirmed localities (one in north‐westEngland and the other inScotland) on open fell‐field and rocky outcrop habitats. It occurs on acid to neutral soil inBritain and elsewhere its circum‐arctic range. It often indicates elevated concentrations of copper or other heavy metals, whose presence in the soil restricts the growth of other species; therefore,S. suecicais perceived as a stress‐tolerant, competition‐avoiding species. Nonetheless, it also grows in more or less closed alpine grassland inEurope; inNorthAmerica andGreenland, it is known from tundra, rocky barrens, gulleys and river outwashes, grassy slopes and sea cliffs.Silene suecicais a (semi‐)rosette plant with a strong taproot, with no capacity for vegetative spread. The main perennating organ is the slightly lignified rootstock/taproot. The rosette has winter‐green leaves; after flowering the rosette leaves die, but new lateral rosettes may be produced in the following year. The longevity of the species is between 3 and 10 years, with the time of first flowering depending on rosette size. Plants that have flowered may die (semelparous individuals), but some are iteroparous and flower again on lateral shoots.Silene suecicaproduces protandrous hermaphrodite flowers, but self‐pollination may occur. InScotland about 10% of all plants flower in any year. Pollination is by a range of insects, including flies and bees. Capsules produce up to 80 seeds (mean = 30).Silene suecicahas probably not declined in theBritishIsles and, in fact, a slight population expansion in permanent plots was observed inScotland in the early 1990s. Nonetheless, it remains classed as vulnerable to extinction because of its restricted distribution. Both of itsBritish locations are protected asSSSIandSAC(Natura 2000) within national parks. It is common in many countries within its distribution range.

Transatlantic Negotiations: Lord Mansfield, Liberty and Somerset

While strictly speaking, English soil did not automatically confer or restore a slave's freedom, the characterization of England's soil by Englishmen themselves as "free" meant that the presence of a person who challenged his/her continued state of bondage stood in tension with that description-a characterization that was an integral part of common law. That tension could have been ameliorated had there been a statute declaring all bound diasporic Africans unquestionably free. Instead, legal personnel invoked common law traditions, and Mansfield frequently ruled in favor of individual liberty on a case by case basis. Mansfield himself did not focus on the question of slavery (which was, at the end of the day, far too volatile given Britain's preeminence in the transatlantic slave trade in the 18th century). Rather, he focused on the question of liberty-a question that potentially privileged free English soil. In the context of the Somerset case, Lord Mansfield proceeded as was his wont, particularly as, having risen through the ranks from Solicitor General to Attorney General and finally to Lord Chief Justice of the court of King's Bench (a series of promotions that could not have been easily achieved by a Scot in England had Mansfield not been circumspect about both about his reputed Jacobite past, and about the company he kept), he was no political innocent.

The ecological response of forest ground flora and soils to experimental trampling in British urban woodlands

The ecological impact of recreation in woodlands and forests is now a subject of considerable world-wide interest. However, there are few studies examining the effects of recreation on woodland vegetation and soils in Britain. This paper quantifies the impact of controlled experimental trampling on three different woodland ground flora stands in lowland urban fringe W10 Quercus robur—Pteridium aquilinum—Rubus fruticosus woodlands (Rodwell, J.S. (1991) British Plant Communities I: Woodland and Scrub. Cambridge University Press) near Coventry, West Midlands. Relationships of plant cover, plant height and soil compaction with trampling in homogeneous stands of Hyacinthoides non-scripta (bluebell), Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) and Rubus fruticosus agg. (bramble) were curvi-linear, suggesting that rates of damage were most rapid at the initial stages of trampling. By virtue of its rosette growth form, the most resistant stand type was the Hyacinthoides stand. Least resistant was the Pteridium stand, but both the Pteridium and the Rubus stands were able to recover well from heavy levels of trampling by the following year. The ability of ground flora to tolerate impacts was more a function of an ability to recover from trampling, rather than to resist. Trampling had the most profound impact on the ability of Hyacinthoides non-scripta to produce seeds, and even two years after the cessation of impact, samples that had received one season of 500 passes had still not produced any seed bearing scapes. The carrying capacity of woodlands in terms of visitor numbers was lower than previously thought, with only 35 people permitted in stands dominated by Hyacinthoides, rising to 450 and 500 people in woodlands dominated by Rubus and Pteridium stands respectively. Models summarising these ecological changes are provided, along with applied recommendations to help manage urban sites with recreation and conservation in mind.

Research note. Effects of fertilizer applications on growth and nutrition of pole sized Sitka spruce on oligotrophic peat

During the early 1990s a marked decline in health of 20-30-year-old Sitka spruce in plantations on deep oligotrophic blanket peat across Northern Ireland was reported to research foresters by local managers. This site type represents a very significant proportion of plantations in this age class managed by the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, and was predominantly planted with pure Sitka spruce, in contrast to similar site types in Britain and the Republic of Ireland, on which lodgepole pine was the preferred species (Edwards, 1962; O'Carroll, 1962). Within affected stands the decline in health was often more pronounced in trees adjacent to roadside or internal drains. Trees in affected plantations presented symptoms of K deficiency in pole-sized Sitka spruce described by Binns et al. (1980) and illustrated by Taylor (1991); although this nutrient is applied to spruce plantations on organic soils in Britain as a standard procedure (Mclntosh, 1981; Dutch et al., 1990), early applications in Ireland are considered unnecessary except on flushed and fen peats

Regional distribution of sulphate in rocks and soil of Britain: A. Forster, M. G. Culshaw & F. G. Bell, in: Engineering geology of construction, ed M. Eddleston & others, (Geological Society of London; Engineering Geology Special Publication, 10), 1995, pp 95–104

Regional distribution of sulphate in rocks and soil of Britain: A. Forster, M. G. Culshaw & F. G. Bell, in: Engineering geology of construction, ed M. Eddleston & others, (Geological Society of London; Engineering Geology Special Publication, 10), 1995, pp 95–104

Regional distribution of sulphate in rocks and soils of Britain

Abstract The damaging effect of sulphate salts on concrete is well known and is usually a problem encountered by concrete structures buried below the water-table in sulphate-bearing soils. Although some individual sulphate-bearing soils, such as London Clay, are well known, little attempt has been made to consider sulphate-bearing soils on a regional basis. The environmental geology and other mapping projects carried out by the British Geological Survey have enabled geotechnical databases to be compiled which can be used as a basis for an examination of the regional distribution of the sulphate-bearing rocks and soils of Britain. The occurrence of sulphate in geological formations is examined and a five part division of geological formations with regard to sulphate attack potential is suggested, which can be used as a guide when specifying the sulphate test requirement for a site investigation.

The pedogenic effects of different species and vegetation types and the implications of succession

SUMMARYThe paper surveys the changes in pH, organic matter type and degree of podzolization of poorly buffered, freely drained, siliceous soils in Britain caused by the predominant plant species and semi‐natural vegetation types. Changes in vegetation with succession, especially with varying grazing and burning regimes, and also with stand regeneration, are outlined, and their implications for soil change noted. Many cyclic changes in species a bundance seem to occur naturally which cause an alternation of contrasting trends in soil acidity and podzolization, thus tending to maintain a long term equilibrium.

Erosion of arable soils in Britain

Changing perspectives on erosion problems on British arable soils are reviewed. Current agricultural practices are increasing the magnitude and extent of soil erosion in Britain and other parts of Europe. Current trends in soil erosion research are examined, in particular recent field survey developments and the potential value of radar‐satellite based monitoring of erosive weather systems. More attention should be devoted to assessing levels of erosion on British arable soils and to the implications of current erosion rates on the long‐term ability of soil to act as a medium for sustained crop yield. Proposed strategies for soil conservation include avoiding cultivation of steep slopes, increasing soil organic content, reducing soil compaction, investigating and remedying sub‐soil compaction, developing a mature crop cover before convective storms occur in early summer and reducing cultivations to a minimum.

Influence of vegetation on the swelling and shrinking of clay soils in Britain : Driscoll, R Geotechnique, V33, N2, June 1983, P93–105

Influence of vegetation on the swelling and shrinking of clay soils in Britain : Driscoll, R Geotechnique, V33, N2, June 1983, P93–105

The influence of vegetation on the swelling and shrinking of clay soils in Britain

The Paper describes volume change properties of the more important British clay soils. Seasonal variations in soil moisture and the significant reductions that trees can induce are discussed. The impact of the 1975–76 drought in Britain which generated many cases of building damage is considered by the application of a damage classification, the results of which suggest that levels of damage have not generally been large. However, the large heave movements which can occur close to trees following their removal are emphasized. Recently published information on the range of influence of various tree species in clays in urban conditions is reviewed and a hierarchy of damaging trees is presented. Some consideration is given to the difficulty of detecting desiccation in clays, with some practical though limited guidance being suggested. Three short case histories are presented to illustrate the influence of trees on both existing buildings and new construction. Cet article decrit les propriétés de changement de volume des principaux sols argileux britanniques. Les variations saisonnières dans l'humidité du sol sont analysées, ainsi que les reductions importantes que des arbres peuvent produire. L'effet de la séheresse en Grande-Bretagne pendant les annés 19755–76 est évalé selon une classification des dégdâs causés aux bâtiments dans beaucoup de cas, mais la conclusion qui en est tirée est qu'en général les dégâts n'ont pas été trop sérieux. Cependant, on souligne les grands mouvements de soulévement qui peuvent avoir lieu là oû des arbres ont été éloignés. On passe en revue des détails récemment publiés au sujet de l'influence exercée par de différents genres d'arbres en ville et on présente une liste des arbres qui causent des dégâts, classés selon leur importance. On discute briévement la difficulté de détecter la dessiccation dans les argiles, et on suggére des méthodes utiles, bien limitées, Trois exemples sont décrits pour illustrer l'influence exercée par les arbres sur des bâtiments existants et des constructions nouvelles.

A glacial terrain map of britain for engineering purposes

The engineering importance of superficial soils in Britain cannot be overemphasized. They range in age from Quaternary to Recent and vary from overconsolidated bouldery silty clays: tills, through normally consolidated clays, laminated clays, silts, sands and gravels, to peats and organic soils.

The role of ‘ancient’ woodlands in conserving ‘undisturbed’ soils in Britain

Abstract The concept that ‘ancient’ woodlands contain ‘undisturbed’ soils of pedological and ecological significance has been explored in a British context in work carried out under a contract from the Nature Conservancy Council. Opportunities in soil science provided by such soils are summarised. Although available in principle, there has been little concerted attempt to confirm or realise these opportunities in practice. A questionnaire sought views and experience on this topic from 70 British workers in soil science and woodland ecology. Of woodland sites proposed as being particularly important for their undisturbed soils, almost half were not contained within the existing national conservation network. Conversely, only some 10% of woodlands of major ecological interest included in the Nature Conservation Review were mentioned by respondents as having particular soil interest. These findings suggest a need for stronger liaison between soil scientists and conservationists. A possible research approach is outlined that could explore and assess the characteristics of ‘undisturbed’ soils of ‘ancient’ woodlands on a regional scale.

Productivity of Closely-spaced Young Poplar on Agricultural Soils in Britain

Productivity of Closely-spaced Young Poplar on Agricultural Soils in Britain

Methods used to study Pythium oligandrum, an aggressive parasite of other fungi

ABSTRACTIsolates of Pythium oligandrum Drechsler and P. acanthicum Drechsler behaved similarly in a range of experiments and in a manner consistent with mycoparasitism. They grew on cellulose in association with some fungi ‐ notably Botryotrichum pilulferum Sacc. & March. and Phialophora radicicola Cain var. radicicola (IMI 187786) ‐ and markedly reduced cellulolysis by these species; however, they had little effect on cellulolysis by Gaeumannomyces graminis (Sacc.) Arx & Olivier var. graminis and made little growth on cellulose in the presence or absence of this fungus.Pythium oligandrum and P. acanthicum also grew rapidly across plates of potato‐dextrose agar precolonised by Phialophora radicicola var. radicicola, whereas isolates of P. echinulatum Matthews, P. mamillatum Meurs, P. megalacanthum de Bary, P. spinosum Sawada and P. ultimum Trow did not grow under these conditions. Precolonised agar plates were therefore used as a selective medium to isolate Pythium oligandrum and similar fungi from soils. For this, small pieces of soil organic matter were transferred to precolonised agar plates and incubated for 4–6 (‐12) days, when the presence of P. oligandrum or similar fungi was assessed by their production of spiny oogonia across the host colony. The technique proved successful in isolating these fungi from a wide range of cultivated soils, even if the soils had been stored air‐dry. However, boiled hemp seeds buried in soil and subsequently transferred to precolonised agar plates usually gave rise to phytopathogenic rather than mycoparasitic pythia.Pieces of wheat straw precolonised by P. oligandrum decomposed at the same rate as virgin straws or straws precolonised by P. ultimum or Mucor hiemalis Wehmer, when all were buried in nitrogen‐supplemented soil. However, different cellulolytic fungi appeared to colonise straws in these respective treatments, Fusarium spp. being less common and Stachybotrys atra Corda more common in the presence of P. oligandrum than in its absence. When subsequently opposed to P. oligandrum on agar plates, Fusarium spp. appeared to be parasitised by this fungus and made very little growth across the agar, whereas S. atra grew through the colony of P. oligandrum and was clearly unaffected by the presence of this fungus.Our results demonstrate the widespread occurrence of P. oligandrum in cultivated soils in Britain and also suggest that this species might influence the activities of other soil fungi.

Growth and yield of sugar beet in relation to potassium and sodium supply

AbstractPotassium fertiliser increases yield of sugar beet on most soils in Britain and sodium fertiliser gives a larger increase, whilst decreasing response to potassium. Sugar beet given factorial dressings of these elements was sampled periodically to determine whether they increase yield by similar effects on growth. Three experiments were made at Broom' Barn on a calcareous loam in 1971–73 and the results suggest that the two elements affect growth similarly. Both increased leaf area early in the season, improved the root: top ratio and increased sugar percentage in fresh and dried roots, all factors contributing to increased sugar yield. Analysis of the roots during September to December showed that neither element affected their processing quality; although each element increased its own concentration in the root juice, it proportionately decreased the harmful α‐amino nitrogen concentration.

Post-Glacial changes in soil profiles

In assessing the importance of soil genesis in the development of habitat conditions through the post-Glacial, we need to know first of all the sequence of stages which a soil goes through in maturing, and secondly the time required for this sequence to be completed. Estimates of the first come from studies of the processes which are involved and comparisons of soil sequences seen in the field today. Inevitably, perhaps, we know more about the early stages of soil formation on new parent material and about the mature profile than we do about the long developmental stages in between. The time scale, too, has been estimated by extrapolation from known circumstances, such as the rate of soil formation after the draining of Lake Ragunda in 1796 (Tamm 1920), but this type of estimation involves assumptions about the constancy of the processes involved; allowances for climatic, hydrologic, or biotic environmental change are difficult to make with any precision. Nevertheless, on the rare occasions when direct estimate has been possible, as for instance the series of sand bars investigated by Burges & Drover (1953) in Australia, the results indicate that our indirect estimates are at least of the right order. It appears that in temperate regions two to four thousand years are necessary for a primary soil profile to mature. This may be an underestimate for soils derived from calcareous parent material, but in what follows, reference will be mainly to non-calcareous conditions, so it is unlikely that serious error will be introduced by taking this figure. It should be noted, however, that secondary soil development can take place at a very much greater speed. The ten thousand or so years of the post-Glacial have clearly provided ample time for the primary soils to reach maturity; in fact, if the estimated time scale is correct, and making generous allowance for possibly less favourable climatic conditions in the early stages of the post-Glacial, it seems that soils in Britain could have been mature (under normal free-draining conditions) by the end of the Boreal period. By then the poorest parent materials would have developed mature podsols if they were going to, and the more base-rich ones some form of brown earth. This conclusion can only be checked by studying soils of this age which have been preserved in some way. Buried soils appear to retain their visible profile charac­teristics relatively unchanged. Soil profiles may be buried artificially or by some natural process involving the mass movement of large quantities of material; or by the formation of peat. However, the formation of peat in Boreal or earlier times implies special hydrological conditions. Nevertheless, Havinga (1963), in Holland, has recently provided indirect evidence of ‘ homogeneous forest profiles ’ under a variety of forest types in pre-Boreal and Boreal times. In some cases bleached soils had succeeded these homogeneous profiles, usually due to a change in hydrologic conditions, and he points out that a homogeneous profile is never found directly under peat, the soils under peat always being more or less podsolized.

Climatic Gradients of Chalk Grassland

In an earlier paper (Perring 1958) it was argued that the concept of independent variables proposed for the study of soil formation (Jenny 1941) might be applied to the study of chalk soils in Britain and that, further, a similar method might be used to study the vegetation developing upon those soils. The essential feature of the method is to study changes in soil and vegetation values in relation to changes in one independent variable whilst keeping all the others constant. Topography has already been considered in this way (Perring 1959). In this paper attention will be turned to climosequences: soil and vegetation changes will be investigated in relation to climate keeping p, parent material, r, topography, o, organisms, and t, time constant as far as possible.