Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Additional informationNotes on contributorsBenjamin D. InskeepBenjamin D. Inskeep received his Masters degree from the School of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University Bloomington. He currently works as a policy analyst and can be reached at bdinskee@gmail.com.Shahzeen Z. AttariShahzeen Z. Attari is an Assistant Professor at the School of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University Bloomington. She may be reached at sattari@indiana.edu.Notes1. Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States (New York, NY, 2009), 41–52.2. G. Wolff and P. H. Gleick, “The Soft Path for Water,” in P. Gleick, ed., The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources 2002–2003 (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2002), 1–32.3. J. F. Kenny et al., Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2005, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1344 (2009), 19.4. M. Murphy, “State of the Industry Report 2011: Economic Stagnation Dampens Industry Outlook,” Journal AWWA 103, no. 10 (2011): 41–54.5. J. Padowski and J. Jawitz, “Water Availability and the Vulnerability of 225 Large Cities in the United States,” Water Resources Research 48 (2012): 1–16.6. Kenny et al., note 3, page 45.7. T. C. Brown, R. Foti, and J. A. Ramirez, “Projected Freshwater Withdrawals in the United States under a Changing Climate,” Water Resources Research 49 (2013): 1259–76.8. K. Jacobs, D. B. Adams, and P. Gleick, “Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change for the Water Resources of the United States,” in National Assessment Synethesis Team, ed., Climate Change Impacts on the United States (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 405–35; C. B. Field et al., “North America,” in M. L. Parry et al., ed., Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 617–52; Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States (2009), note 1, pages 41–52.9. Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States (2009), note 1, page 48.10. H. Vaux, “Water Conservation, Efficiency, and Reuse,” Elements 7, no. 3 (2011): 187–91; P. H. Gleick, “Global Freshwater Resources: Soft-Path Solutions for the 21st Century,” Science 302, no. 5650 (2003): 1524–28.11. Although the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) found that domestic withdrawals did not change substantially over 20 years, going from 100 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) in 1985 to 98 gpcd in 2005 (Kenny et al. (2009), note 6, page 45), many other sources on the subject have found substantial household reductions in water consumption, especially in indoor uses. For example, see T. D. Rockaway, P. A. Coomes, J. Rivard, and B. Kornstein, “Residential Water Use Trends in North America,” Journal AWWA 103, no. 2 (2011): 76–89; and W. B. DeOreo, Analysis of Water Use in New Single-Family Homes (Boulder, CO: Aquacraft, 2011).12. Kenny et al. (2009), note 3, page 19; P. H. Gleick, “Data Table 2: Freshwater Withdrawal by Country and Sector,” in The World's Water Volume 7: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2011); P. H. Gleick, “Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs,” Water International 21, no. 2 (1996): 88.13. S. M. Olmstead and R. N. Stavins, “Comparing Price and Nonprice Approaches to Urban Water Conservation,” Water Resources Research 45, no. 4 (2009): 3–4.14. Attari, S. Z. (2014). Perceptions of water use. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(14), 5129-5134.15. Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, “Water Saving Tips,” http://www.bewaterwise.com/tips01.html (accessed 7 April 2013); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Using Water Efficiently: Ideas for Residences, http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/docs/residence_508.pdf (accessed 7 April 2013); Water—Use It Wisely, 100 Ways to Conserve, http://wateruseitwisely.com/100-ways-to-conserve/index.php (accessed 7 April 2013); Alliance for Water Efficiency, Saving Water—Tips for Residential Use, http://www.home-water-works.org/water-conservation-tips/home (accessed 7 April 2013).16. For example, Water—Use It Wisely (2013), note 14.17. Both the Alliance for Water Efficiency (2013), note 14, and A. Vickers, Handbook of Water Use and Conservation: Homes, Landscapes, Businesses, Industries, Farms (Amherst, MA: Waterflow Press, 2001), provide some quantitative estimates of available water savings.18. The Home Water Works Calculator (http://www.home-water-works.org/calculator) is an exception in that it estimates the user's outdoor use and compares it to average and water-wise landscapes. To meet U.S. EPA labeling requirements for a WaterSense, a “water-efficient” landscape is one that is designed to use 70% of the water that would be required of an otherwise identical landscape composed of 100% cool-season turfgrass (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, WaterSense Water Budget Approach, (2009), 2).19. Water - Use It Wisely (2013), note 14; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Showerheads, http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/products/showerheads.html. (accessed 11 July 2013); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Bathroom Sink Faucets and Accessories, http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/products/bathroom_sink_faucets.html. (accessed 11 July 2013).20. P. W. Mayer et al., Residential End Uses of Water (Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation, 1999), 1–310.21. An updated REUWS is due to be completed toward the end of 2014. W. DeOreo and P. Mayer, “Resential End Uses of Water: Progress Report and Interim Results,” Drinking Water Research, July–September (2012): 14–22.22. Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, page 167.23. Vickers (2001), note 16, pages 15–16.24. Kenny et al. (2009), note 3, page 19.25. Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, page 88.26. U.S. Census Bureau, “State & Country Quickfacts,” http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html(accessed 9 July 2013).27. In comparison, the U.S. EPA estimates that the typical U.S. household uses 260 gphd (Conserving Water, http://www.epa.gov/greenhomes/ConserveWater.htm; accessed 23 August 2013) to 320 gphd (“Outdoor water use in the United States,” http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/pubs/outdoor.html; accessed 23 August 2013). Irrigation used to grow food consumed by the household would be an example of outdoor water use that served an essential (as opposed to discretionary) purpose.28. Vickers (2001), note 16, page 141.29. Kenny et al. (2009), note 3, page 19; Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, page 88.30. Kenny et al. (2009), note 3, page 20; Western Resource Advocates, “Comparative Analysis of Water Providers in the Southwest: Water Use and Demand-Side Efficiency,” in Smart Water: A Comparative Study of Urban Water Use Efficiency Across the Southwest (Boulder, CO: Western Resource Advocates, 2003), 63.31. G. T. Gardner and P. C. Stern, “The Short List: The Most Effective Actions U.S. Households Can Take to Curb Climate Change,” Environment 50, no. 5 (2008): 12–25.32. Ibid., pages 17–20.33. Installing toilet tank inserts is excluded because it is a less effective alternative to, and not complementary with, installing low-flush toilets.34. Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, pages 119–120; Consumer Reports, “New Consumer Reports' Poll Reveals America's Take on Lawn Care,” http://news.consumerreports.org/home/2008/05/consumer-reports-survey-americans-and-lawn-care-lawn-mower-tractors.html (accessed 22 July 2013).35. C. Milesi, C. D. Elvidge, and R. R. Nemani, “Assessing the Extent of Urban Irrigated Areas in the United States,” Remote Sensing of Global Croplands for Food Security (2009): 217.36. P. Robbins, Lawn People: How Grasses, Weeds, and Chemicals Make Us Who We Are (Philadephia, PA: Temple University Press, 2007), 1–32.37. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Watersense Water Budget Approach, (2009).38. Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, pages 92–93.39. Alliance for Water Efficiency, “Household Leak Detection and Mitigation,” http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/Household_Leaks.aspx (accessed 16 July 2013); Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, pages 91–92; Vickers (2001), note 16, page 67.40. P. H. Gleick et al., Waste Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California (Oakland, CA, 2003), 59–61; Vickers (2001), note 16, page 16; B. Dziegielewski, “Efficient and Inefficient Uses of Water in North American Households,” paper presented at the Water, The World's Most Important Resource: Xth World Water Congress, Melbourne, Australia, 12–16 March 2000.41. Alliance for Water Efficiency, “Household Leak Detection and Mitigation,” http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/Household_Leaks.aspx (accessed 16 July 2013).42. Rockaway et al. (2011), note 11, pages 86–87.43. L. A. Greening, D. L. Greene, and C. Difiglio, “Energy Efficiency and Consumption—the Rebound Effect—a Survey,” Energy Policy 28, no. 6 (2000): 389–401; S. Sorrell, J. Dimitropoulos, and M. Sommerville, “Empirical Estimates of the Direct Rebound Effect: A Review,” Energy Policy 37, no. 4 (2009): 1356–71.44. L. W. Davis, “Durable Goods and Residential Demand for Energy and Water: Evidence from a Field Trial,” The RAND Journal of Economics 39, no. 2 (2008): 530–46; L. Bennear, L. Taylor, and J. Lee, “Participation Incentives, Rebound Effects and the Cost-Effectiveness of Rebates for Water-Efficient Appliances,” Duke Environmental Economics Working Paper Series (2011): 1–35.45. Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, page 134.46. Gardner and Stern (2008), note 30, page 17.47. The dramatic 80% reduction in water use seen in one Texas town in 2012 is a recent example of the potential effectiveness of large-scale, rapid implementation of water conservation actions in response to water shortage (S. D. Melker, “Two Texas Towns Run Out of Water,” PBS NewsHour, 20 March 2012); A. Vickers, “Managing Demand: Water Conservation as a Drought Mitigation Tool,” in D. A. Wilhite, ed., Drought and Water Crises: Science, Technology, and Management Issues (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005), 173–90.48. W. B. DeOreo, “The Role of Water Conservation in a Long-Range Drought Plan,” Journal (American Water Works Association) 98, no. 2 (2006): 94–101.49. Olmstead and Stavins (2009), note 13.50. P. W. Mayer, “Significant Indoor Water Efficiency Is Possible,” Home Energy (2007): 28–32.51. W. Samuelson and R. Zeckhauser, “Status Quo Bias in Decision Making,” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 1, no. 1 (1988): 7–59.52. E. U. Weber, “Perception and Expectation of Climate Change,” Psychological Perspectives to Environmental and Ethical Issues in Management (1997): 314–41.53. S. Gaudin, “Effect of Price Information on Residential Water Demand,” Applied Economics 38, no. 4 (2006): 383–93.54. Olstead and Stavins (2009), note 13, pages 6–7.55. Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. “Drought 2013: Public Water Supply Systems Affected as of July 3, 2013,” http://www.tceq.texas.gov/drinkingwater/trot/location.html (accessed 8 July 2013).56. R. H. Thaler and C. R. Sunstein, “Libertarian Paternalism,” The American Economic Review 93, no. 2 (2003): 175–79.57. S. Z. Attari et al., “Preferences for Change: Do Individuals Prefer Voluntary Actions, Soft Regulations, or Hard Regulations to Decrease Fossil Fuel Consumption?,” Ecological Economics 68, no. 6 (2009): 1701–10.58. Olmstead and Stavins (2009), note 13, pages 1–4.59. For example, see K. Galbraith, “Texas Bill Aim to Douse HOAs' Limits on Xeriscaping,” The Texas Tribune, 31 January 2013.60. Mayer et al. (1999), note 19, pages 93–94.