Socio-economic Groupings Research Articles

Racial Capitalism and Entrepreneurship: An Intersectional Feminist Labour Market Perspective on UK Self-Employment

This article explains entrepreneurial activity patterns in the United Kingdom labour market using theories of racial capitalism and intersectional feminism. Using UK Office for National Statistics Labour Force Survey data 2018–2019 and employing probit modelling techniques on employment modes, self-employment types and work arrangements among differing groups, we investigate inequality in self-employment within and between socio-structural groupings of race, class and gender. We find that those belonging to non-dominant gender, race and socio-economic class groupings experience an intersecting set of entrepreneurial penalties, enhancing understanding of the ways multiple social hierarchies interact in self-employment patterns. This robust quantitative evidence challenges contemporary debates, policy and practice regarding the potential for entrepreneurship to offer viable income generation opportunities by those on the socio-economic margins.

Obesity among adolescent students in private and public schools investigation of awareness: a cross-sectional study

Aims: The aim of this study was to examine the obesity awareness of adolescent students in private and public schools.
 Methods: The research is a quantitative study. The research group for the study consisted of 1393 private and public school students between the ages of 10 and 13 in Kırıkkale province. The first stage included a personal information form including questions about gender, age, BMI, socio-economic status, physical activity for half an hour or more per week, and daily food distribution. In the second stage, the Obesity Awareness Scale developed by Allen (2011) and adapted into Turkish by Kafkas and Özen (2014) was used. The scale consists of 3 sub-dimensions and 20 questions.
 Results: It was observed that there was a significant difference in the anthropometric characteristics, obesity awareness, nutrition and physical activity, BMI, daily food distribution, and socio-economic status groupings of private and public school children. It was seen that there was a significant difference in all other variables and sub-dimensions except body weight, BMI, and obesity total between girls and boys; there was a significant difference in all other variables except anthropometric characteristics of girls in private and public schools; and there was a significant difference in all other variables except the age variable of boys in private and public schools.
 Conclusion: The anthropometric characteristics, obesity awareness, nutrition and physical activity, BMI, daily food distribution, and socio-economic status of female and male students in private and public schools were significantly different from each other. In private school students, the highest correlation was found between obesity total and socio-economic status, while the lowest correlation was found between obesity total and the physical activity dimension. In public school students, the highest correlation was found between the obesity dimension and BMI, and the lowest correlation was found between the physical activity dimension and socio-economic status.

Adaptation of a Sensory Reactivity Assessment for Use With Children in the Western Cape Province, South Africa.

Background: Sensory reactivity (SR) difficulties are characterised by problems regulating an individual's responses to sensory input such that it interferes with occupational performance in daily tasks. South African occupational therapists use assessments developed in the United States to identify SR difficulties in children. These have been found to be inappropriate for the South African context. This study reports on the methodology used to adapt an assessment for use in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. Method: The SPM-2 Child and Preschool caregiver self-report questionnaires and seven tests of the performance-based Evaluation in Ayres Sensory Integration (EASI) that assess SR were identified for adaptation. A qualitative methodology was used to identify challenges using the assessment in a sample of the Western Cape population. Cognitive interviews were conducted with six community members from diverse socioeconomic groupings. Inductive analysis was used to identify and group the emerging themes. The test adaptation was conducted by expert occupational therapists based on these findings. Findings: Challenges were grouped into two themes, namely, language challenges, of which there were three subcategories and inappropriate or threatening assessment tasks. Fifty-three changes were made to the assessment. Conclusion: A detailed methodology was developed to adapt a SR assessment for use in the Western Cape Province. Challenges in using the assessment were elicited primarily from community members rather than professionals.

Incidence of Breast Cancer among Blood Groups of Women in the Holy Governorate of Karbala

Introduction: Breast cancer is a significant problem that affects women all over the world and is a leading cause of death among these patients. ABO blood groups are stable and vary by socioeconomic, geographical, and ethnic groupings. Blood type affects susceptibility and results. Objective: Previous studies have discovered a correlation between ABO blood type and Rh system as risk factors for breast cancer. Aim: To identify the association of breast cancer prevalence between women’s blood groups and the Rh factor system in Karbala Governorate. Materials and Methods: A total of 1026 women were chosen, with 736 cases and 290 controls. The case group includes patients with breast cancer, and all of them had their cancer diagnosis confirmed by biopsy. The control group consisted of women who had never been diagnosed with cancer of breast. Results: Blood group type O (39.7%), blood group type A (26.1%), blood group type B (25.4%), and blood group type AB (8.8%) were the most common ABO blood types among cancer of breast patients. The percentages of groups of ABO blood for healthy donor control were as follows: blood group type O (40.0%), blood group type A (27.6%), blood group type B (21.7%), and AB (10.7%) with P = 0.05 or higher. There is a significant difference in the Rh factor between breast cancer patients and healthy control (P = 0.003). There were noticeable differences in age categories between patients diagnosed with breast cancer and the controls in this study (P = 0.000). Conclusion: There is no correlation between ABO blood types and breast cancer in this group of Iraqi women. There is a statistically significant difference, with a P value of 0.003, between patients diagnosed with breast cancer and healthy controls in terms of the Rh factor.

Measurement invariance of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire across socioeconomic status and ethnicity from ages 3 to 17 years: A population cohort study.

Mental health inequalities along ethnic and socioeconomic groupings are well documented. The extent to which these observed inequalities are genuine or reflect measurement differences is unclear. In the current study we sought to investigate this in a large population-based sample of children and adolescents in the United Kingdom. The main objective of the study was to establish whether the parent-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) was invariant across ethnicity and socioeconomic status groupings at six time points from 3 to 17 years (maximum N = 17,274). First, we fitted a series of confirmatory factor analysis models to the data and confirmed that the five-factor structure (emotional problems; peer problems; conduct problems; hyperactivity/inattention; and prosocial behaviour) had acceptable fit at ages 5, 7, 11, and 14 years. Next, we tested configural, metric, and scalar invariance at these time points and demonstrated scalar invariance across household income, parent highest education, and ethnicity categories. The five-factor structure did not fit well at ages 3 and 17 years; therefore invariance was not tested at these ages. These findings suggest the parent-report SDQ can be used to measure socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in mental health from ages 5-14 years but more consideration is required outside these ages.

A better start literacy approach: effectiveness of Tier 1 and Tier 2 support within a response to teaching framework

The Better Start Literacy Approach (BSLA) is a strengths-based approach to supporting children’s literacy learning in their first year of school. Previous research has shown the approach is effective at accelerating foundational literacy knowledge in children with lower levels of oral language. This study examined the impact of the BSLA for children with varied language profiles and across schools from diverse socioeconomic communities. Additionally, a controlled analysis of the impact of Tier 2 teaching within a response to teaching framework was undertaken. Participants included 402 five-year-old children from 14 schools in New Zealand. A randomised delayed treatment design was utilised to establish the effect of Tier 1 teaching. Analyses showed a significant Tier 1 intervention effect for phoneme awareness, letter-sound knowledge, non-word reading and non-word spelling. There was no difference in intervention effects across socioeconomic groupings. Children were identified for Tier 2 teaching after 10 weeks of Tier 1 implementation. The progress of 98 children in response to Tier 2 teaching was compared to 26 children who met Tier 2 criteria but received only Tier 1 teaching within this study. Children in the Tier 2 group scored significantly higher on phonological awareness, non-word reading, and spelling than the control group at the post-Tier 2 assessment point, after controlling for pre-Tier 2 scores. The results suggest that a proactive strengths-based approach to supporting foundational literacy learning in children’s first year of school benefits all learners. The findings have important implications for early provision of literacy learning support in order to reduce current inequities in literacy outcomes.

Nordic Design

Legal financial obligations serve a range of practical and ideological functions within the modern American criminal justice system. Criminal fines are punitive in nature and intended to reflect the severity of the offense as well as having a deterrent component. When assessed in conjunction with other financial penalties, including fees and restitution, the collective economic burden of these sanctions can be significant. An increasingly robust body of literature highlights the unequal impact and collateral harms of these punishments, especially those for people who fall into different socioeconomic groupings. There is a danger that the well-deserved opprobrium directed at fees and the cumulative effect of legal financial obligations will mask some benefits of properly targeted and calibrated fines. Here, we explore an opportunity for reform in the United States inspired by two Nordic sentencing policy models for fines. First, we look to Norwegian penal policy to consider expanding the use of fines as the primary sanction for a wider range of criminal offenses, especially in lieu of short terms of incarceration. We temper the impact of this change, especially for indigent defendants, by considering the implementation of a means-adjusted “day fine” system which are prevalent in Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, and other individualized adjustments as in Norway. Taken together, these policies could reduce the American over-reliance on incarceration while modifying punitive fiscal sanctions in a manner that meets the purposes of punishment and seeks to minimize the unintended harms of financial punishment.

Qualitative exploration of the dynamics of women's dietary diversity. How much does economic empowerment matter?

This study qualitatively examined dietary diversity among married women of reproductive age who engaged in two socio-economic activities to explore the dynamics of food availability, access, costs and consumption. Qualitative in-depth interviews. The food groups in the Minimum Dietary Diversity for women were used to explore women's dietary diversity. IDI were used to develop a roster of daily food consumption over a week. We explored food items that were considered expensive and frequency of consumption, food items that women require permission to consume and frequency of permission sought and the role of economic empowerment. Data analysis followed an inductive-deductive approach to thematic analysis. Rural and peri-urban setting in Enugu State, Nigeria. Thirty-eight married women of reproductive age across two socio-economic groupings (women who work only at home and those who worked outside their homes) were recruited in April 2019. Economic empowerment improved women's autonomy in food purchase and consumption. However, limited income restricted women from full autonomy in consumption decisions and access. Consumption of non-staple food items, especially flesh proteins, would benefit from women's economic empowerment, whereas staple food items would not benefit so much. Dietary diversity is influenced by food production and purchase where factors including seasonal variation in food availability, prices, contextual factors that influence women's autonomy and income are important determinants. With limited income, agency and access to household financial resources coupled with norms that restrict women's income earning, women continue to be at risk for not achieving adequate dietary diversity.

What predicts adult immigrants’ engagement in host language training programmes: social class, forms of capital, or academic self-efficacy?

Introduction. Host language training for immigrants continues to be a debated issue. Beyond language skills, immigrants’ engagement in language training has seldom been studied. Purpose: The present study predicted student engagement in Swedish host language training programmes. Predictors of engagement include (a) socioeconomic and sociodemographic factors (sex, socioeconomic groupings); (b) human capital; (c) social capital; and (d) academic self-efficacy. Methodology and methods: The data consist of a survey with 186 participants from one language training centre (i.e., non-random). Results: The participants reported a high level of engagement in language training. The study used linear regression and structural equation modelling. First, the study indicates (unexpectedly) that students with low education were more engaged than highly educated students. Second, students with greater social capital had greater engagement. Third, academic self-efficacy made the largest positive difference in student engagement. Conclusions: The study concludes with support for theories in immigration research and adult education, with the exception of the unexpected finding.

The influence of socio-economic status on risk prioritisation

This study examined the influence of socioeconomic status (SES) on risk prioritisation. Participants ranked 28 hazards according to how risky they considered them to be for the South African society. The results showed SES had an influence on hazard prioritisation, e.g., alcohol was considered the most significant societal hazard by low SES individuals, but was ranked 10th by high SES individuals. High SES individuals on the other hand, were significantly more concerned than low SES individuals about personal security risks. A second aim of the study was to delineate the interaction between SES and gender, and whether this also influenced risk perception. The data revealed statistically significant interactions between gender and SES for a number of hazards including personal security hazards, government corruption, climate change, and alcohol. SES influenced risk perceptions even at the level of gender so that individuals of similar gender but different SES perceived risks from the same hazard disparately. This suggests that people’s socioeconomic status influenced how they perceived risks, irrespective of gender. Together, these findings suggest that SES is an important determinant of people’s risk perceptions, and that it can modify even the effects of gender. These findings also have practical implications because they imply that risk perceptions are not similar between socio-economic groupings. As such, assessments derived in high SES or developed contexts may not adequately describe low SES or developing contexts. Context-relevant data are, therefore, key to successful risk management and communication.

Characterization of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome in Arizona from 2010-2017.

In this paper, we describe a population of mothers who are opioid dependent at the time of giving birth and neonates exposed to opioids in utero who experience withdrawal following birth. While there have been studies of national trends in this population, there remains a gap in studies of regional trends. Using data from the Arizona Department of Health Services Hospital Discharge Database, this study aimed to characterize the population of neonates with neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS) and mothers who were opioid dependent at the time of giving birth, in Arizona. We analyzed approximately 1.2 million electronic medical records from the Arizona Department of Health Services Hospital Discharge Database to identify patterns and disparities across socioeconomic, ethnic, racial, and/or geographic groupings. In addition, we identified comorbid conditions that are differentially associated with NOWS in neonates or opioid dependence in mothers. Our analysis was designed to assess whether indicators such as race/ethnicity, insurance payer, marital status, and comorbidities are related to the use of opioids while pregnant. Our findings suggest that women and neonates who are non-Hispanic White and economically disadvantaged, tend be part of our populations of interest more frequently than expected. Additionally, women who are opioid dependent at the time of giving birth are unmarried more often than expected, and we suggest that marital status could be a proxy for support. Finally, we identified comorbidities associated with neonates who have NOWS and mothers who are opioid dependent not previously reported.

Mind the (Tax) Gap! It is Bigger and More Complex than You Think

Historically, national revenue agencies have relied largely on trends in aggregate revenue collections along with reporting on compliance yields as the central element of their performance reporting, together with a few efficiency-related measures. Generally, trends of increasing revenue collections (ahead of budget) and rising compliance program outputs have been seen as indicators of a successful revenue agency and a healthier tax system. But is this necessarily the case? Do such indicators properly and adequately reflect the health of the tax system? In an effort to answer these questions, a relatively small but growing number of national tax agencies have over the last decade or so sought to better understand the health of their tax system by turning their attention to the concept of the ‘tax gap’— the difference between the estimated amount of tax legally payable for each tax administered and what is actually collected in practice. This interest has brought a focus to better understanding tax gap estimation methods, the introduction of comprehensive tax gap research programs, and the public dissemination of tax gap findings to increase community awareness and draw attention to the fact the revenue agency is serious about the tax gap as a long-term performance measure. This development constitutes a new frontier in the management of government revenue systems. And as these agencies often have administrative responsibility for more than just taxes (e.g. student loan repayments and superannuation contributions), these tax gap estimates can have implications beyond just taxes. In the case of the individuals income tax, this must also mean that related tax gap estimates pose a frontier challenge to government agencies administering income-related transfers (e.g. pensions and unemployment benefits) and service entitlements (e.g. health care cards). This paper builds on recent tax gap research findings published by the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) and examines what they mean for the main types of individuals income tax non-compliance, the main perpetrators, the behaviours underlying this non-compliance, and possible policy and administrative responses. The analysis is made by allocating the ATO’s individuals income tax gap estimates to its 2% individuals sample file of taxpayers in 2016-17 and reviewing the results by sources of tax gap and how they differ across various socio-economic and demographic groupings. The paper also examines what these results might mean for the repayment of income-contingent Study and Training Support Loans (STSL) and for the payment of means-tested government transfers. Finally, the paper presents a menu of potential reforms to address key weaknesses in individuals income tax policy design and administration.

Российские макрорегионы в системе территориальных группировок и сравнительные параметры развития их социально-экономических комплексов

the article deals with issues related to the positioning of macroregions in the socio-economic complex of the country, expressed in their position in the system of territorial socio-economic groupings, economic zoning, the state and trends of current development indicators. The analysis of economic activity in various macro-regions of the country in 2017–2020 is carried out. It is concluded that the main attention in the strategic planning of economic and social development in the territory of the macroregion should be paid to the coordination of actions between interested economic entities and management structures at all levels

NIGERIA AND THE CHALLENGES OF NATIONAL UNITY

The task of unifying the various ethnic, religious, political and socio-economic groupings in Nigeria has remained a daunting national challenge more than hundred years after amalgamation in 1914. This is particularly puzzling considering that all government regimes since independence in 1960 have made national unity their important agenda. Concomitant programmes, policies and mantras including institutionalization of the federal character principle, the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), unity schools, national symbols, National Orientation Agency (NOA), and mantras such as “the unity of the nation is not negotiable”, among others, have been adopted to facilitate national unity in Nigeria. Yet the gap between the various groupings seems wider as the nation is still plagued with ethnic rivalry, religious intolerance, political exclusion, quest for self-determination, power sharing and violent agitations, to mention a few. This paper explored the challenges of national unity in Nigeria after one hundred years of existence. Employing the Choice theory, documentary data sources and qualitative data analysis, the paper contends that the challenges to national unity in Nigeria appear to persist because of the manipulations of political, ethnic and religious elites due to pecuniary gains and enduring rivalry over the control of state power. The result showed that unity remains a scarce commodity in Nigeria because of the manner elites conceived and implement policies to reinforce primordial loyalties. As a result, government policies and projects are narrowly conceived and implemented to favour selected groups and communities. This heightens disagreements and controversies among the diverse peoples and communities, threatening the nation’s existence and development.

Urban E–Inclusion:An Empirical Research

In the contemporary picture there is conjoint consensus amongst all the policy makers from across the sphere that devoid of ICT and digital inclusion; the growth of an individual is stalled. Specially in developing economy like India, where poverty eradication and employment generation are foremost objectives; digital inclusion is a must. Considering factors like lack of infrastructure, primary education and availability affordable technologies and others, the strategic intervention and collaborative efforts by government and non-government organizations is indispensable. The diffusion of new Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) like computers and Internet provides great opportunities for the well-being of people in developing countries. Does this covenant hold on for defamed socioeconomic groupings? In examining the differences in gender we have used the notion of E-inclusion- estimated by different attributes such as skills, user access to digital devices. In exploring the factors for digital inclusion we found tertiary education and the ability to use ICTs significant. The study follows Descriptive research design. The sample consisted of people located in Chennai city. The researcher adopted structured questionnaire to collect the responses from the respondents. The main objective of the study was to understand and analyze the access to digital devices and skills required. Suitable hypotheses were framed and tested to support the study findings. The responses were analyzed using both expository statistics and inferential statistics. The outcomes additionally guide the dispute that the argument of digital inclusion needs to be examined in terms of the exclusive information needs of several socioeconomic groupings and in unique social contexts. Though the challenges that are hindering the effective digital inclusion of individuals and organizations will continue to change and accordingly government should work in the direction of building resilient, better partnerships, operating collected, to support people and organizations benefit from the internet and ICT.

Aging Populations, Mortality, and Life Expectancy

Life expectancy has long been seen as an indicator of the quality of life as well as the health of a population. Recent trends in US life expectancy show growing inequality in life expectancy for some socioeconomic and geographic groupings but diminishing inequality by race and gender. For example, while African Americans had gains in life expectancy, non-Hispanic white women with low levels of education experienced drops. Overall, the United States continues to fall behind other countries in terms of life expectancy. One reason is our growing mortality in midlife from so-called deaths of despair. Public health programs cannot eliminate these adverse trends if they are not also accompanied by social policies supporting economic opportunity for US families.

Determinants of Severe Maternal Morbidity and Its Racial/Ethnic Disparities in New York City, 2008-2012.

Objectives Severe maternal morbidity (SMM) is an important indicator for identifying and monitoring efforts to improve maternal health. Studies have identified independent risk factors, including race/ethnicity; however, there has been limited investigation of the modifying effect of socioeconomic factors. Study aims were to quantify SMM risk factors and to determine if socioeconomic status modifies the effect of race/ethnicity on SMM risk. Methods We used 2008-2012 NYC birth certificates matched with hospital discharge records for maternal deliveries. SMM was defined using an algorithm developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mixed-effects logistic regression models estimated SMM risk by demographic, socioeconomic, and health characteristics. The final model was stratified by Medicaid status (as a proxy for income), education, and neighborhood poverty. Results Of 588,232 matched hospital deliveries, 13,505 (229.6 per 10,000) had SMM. SMM rates varied by maternal age, birthplace, education, income, pre-existing chronic conditions, pre-pregnancy weight status, trimester of prenatal care entry, plurality, and parity. Race/ethnicity was consistently and significantly associated with SMM. While racial differences in SMM risk persisted across all socioeconomic groupings, the risk was exacerbated among Latinas and Asian-Pacific Islanders with lower income when compared to white non-Latinas. Similarly, living in the poorest neighborhoods exacerbated SMM risk among both black non-Latinas and Latinas. Conclusions for Practice SMM determinants in NYC mirror national trends, including racial/ethnic disparities. However, these disparities persisted even in the highest income and educational groups suggesting other pathways are needed to explain racial/ethnic differences.

The Daily Mile makes primary school children more active, less sedentary and improves their fitness and body composition: a quasi-experimental pilot study

BackgroundThe Daily Mile is a physical activity programme made popular by a school in Stirling, Scotland. It is promoted by the Scottish Government and is growing in popularity nationally and internationally. The aim is that each day, during class time, pupils run or walk outside for 15 min (~1 mile) at a self-selected pace. It is anecdotally reported to have a number of physiological benefits including increased physical activity, reduced sedentary behaviour, increased fitness and improved body composition. This study aimed to investigate these reports.MethodsWe conducted a quasi-experimental repeated measures pilot study in two primary schools in the Stirling Council area: one school with, and one without, intention to introduce the Daily Mile. Pupils at the control school followed their usual curriculum. Of the 504 children attending the schools, 391 children in primary classes 1–7 (age 4–12 years) at the baseline assessment took part. The follow-up assessment was in the same academic year. Outcomes were accelerometer-assessed average daily moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) and average daily sedentary behaviour, 20-m shuttle run fitness test performance and adiposity assessed by the sum of skinfolds at four sites. Valid data at both time points were collected for 118, 118, 357 and 327 children, respectively, for each outcome.ResultsAfter correction for age and gender, significant improvements were observed in the intervention school relative to the control school for MVPA, sedentary time, fitness and body composition. For MVPA, a relative increase of 9.1 min per day (95% confidence interval or 95%CI 5.1–13.2 min, standardised mean difference SMD = 0.407, p = 0.027) was observed. For sedentary time, there was a relative decrease of 18.2 min per day (10.7–25.7 min, SMD = 0.437, p = 0.017). For the shuttle run, there was a relative increase of 39.1 m (21.9–56.3, SMD = 0.236, p = 0.037). For the skinfolds, there was a relative decrease of 1.4 mm (0.8–2.0 mm, SMD = 0.246, p = 0.036). Similar results were obtained when a correction for socioeconomic groupings was included.ConclusionsThe findings show that in primary school children, the Daily Mile intervention is effective at increasing levels of MVPA, reducing sedentary time, increasing physical fitness and improving body composition. These findings have relevance for teachers, policymakers, public health practitioners, and health researchers.

Socioeconomic status and alcohol use in low- and lower-middle income countries: A systematic review.

Harmful use of alcohol is a major cause of global morbidity and mortality. The role of alcohol as a driver of the unfolding non-communicable disease crisis has led to high-profile calls for better epidemiological data. Despite causing a disproportionate amount of harm in low-income groups, there is a critical dearth of evidence on the intra-national socioeconomic patterning of alcohol use in low- and lower-middle income countries (LLMICs). This review aims to fill the gap, providing evidence on the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and alcohol use in these low-income settings. We conducted a comprehensive literature search for primary research published between January 1, 1990 and June 30, 2015 using 13 electronic databases, including Embase and Medline. We also hand-searched references and reviewed 'gray literature' - studies that have not been published in peer-reviewed journals. We included studies from LLMICs presenting data on multiple measures of socioeconomic status and alcohol use. No age or language restrictions were applied. Due to high heterogeneity, we used a narrative approach for data synthesis. After reviewing 4242 records and 247 full-text articles, 23 studies met our inclusion criteria, reporting data on 861,295 individuals aged >10 years from 10 countries. Alcohol use was found to be more prevalent in lower socioeconomic groups in the majority of Southeast Asian studies. The association was mixed for African studies, although these tended to have smaller sample sizes and weaker methods. Studies that measured multiple domains of SES found good agreement between different indicators. Definitions of alcohol use and abuse varied widely between studies, as did socioeconomic groupings. The lack of consistency between studies and the abject lack of data from the majority of LLMICs present a major barrier to policymakers tasked with reducing alcohol-related harm in these settings. Adherence to standardized definitions, the publication of WHO survey data on alcohol and SES, and enhanced surveillance is needed to build an accurate picture of the socioeconomic patterning of alcohol use in developing countries.

Improving rates of overweight, obesity and extreme obesity in New Zealand 4-year-old children in 2010-2016.

SummaryBackgroundPrevalence of childhood obesity is high in developed countries, and there is a growing concern regarding increasing socio‐economic disparities.ObjectivesTo assess trends in the prevalence of overweight, obesity and extreme obesity among New Zealand 4‐year olds, and whether these differ by socio‐economic and ethnic groupings.MethodsA national screening programme, the B4 School Check, collected height and weight data for 75–92% of New Zealand 4‐year‐old children (n = 317 298) between July 2010 and June 2016. Children at, or above, the 85th, 95th and 99.7th percentile for age and sex adjusted body mass index (according to World Health Organization standards) were classified as overweight, obese and extremely obese, respectively. Prevalence rates across 6 years (2010/11 to 2015/16) were examined by sex, across quintiles of socio‐economic deprivation, and by ethnicity.ResultsThe prevalence of overweight, obesity and extreme obesity decreased by 2.2 [95% CI, 1.8–2.5], 2.0 [1.8–2.2] and 0.6 [0.4–0.6] percentage points, respectively, between 2010/2011 and 2015/2016. The downward trends in overweight, obesity and extreme obesity in the population persisted after adjustment for sex, ethnicity, deprivation and urban/rural residence. Downward trends were also observed across sex, ethnicity and deprivation groups.ConclusionsThe prevalence of obesity appears to be declining in 4‐year‐old children in New Zealand across all socio‐economic and ethnic groups.