Social Support Network Characteristics Research Articles

Social Support Associated with Condom Use Behavior Among Female Sex Workers in Iran.

BackgroundDespite the widespread knowledge about social support and health, there is little information about the association between social support and HIV risk behaviors such as condom use among female sex workers (FSWs) in Iran. This study aimed to determine the association between social support and frequency of condom use among FSWs in Tehran, Iran.MethodsUsing mixed sampling methods, we recruited 170 FSWs in Tehran in 2017. We measured self-reported social support by face-to-face interviews using a standardized questionnaire. Linear regression was used to assess the association between socio-demographic characteristics (age, education level, marital status, and place of living), transactional sex characteristics (age at first transactional sex and frequency of transactional sex in the last month), HIV knowledge, social support network characteristics (social network size, duration of tie, intimacy, social support), and condom use behavior.ResultsOf the total of 1193 persons in FSW’s social networks, 615 (51%) were sexual partners, 529 (44%) were peer sex workers, and 36 (5%) were family members. The participants perceived moderate social support from sexual partners, low from peer sex workers, and very low from family members. Adjusted for individual and other network characteristics, peer sex worker social support (b = 0.28, 95%CI 0.06, 0.50), and family support (b = 1.12, 95%CI 0.028, 2.23) were significantly associated with condom use.ConclusionFamily and peer sex worker social support are associated with condom use, but less strongly than HIV knowledge or place of living. However, very few FSWs are socially connected with families. Interventions to promote condom use among this vulnerable population should also consider social and familial support.

Pretreatment social network characteristics relate to increased risk of dropout and unfavorable outcomes among women in a residential treatment setting for substance use

Increased retention in residential treatment for substance use disorder (SUD) has been associated with more favorable clinical outcomes for residents. Yet SUD treatment dropout remains high. It is essential to uncover factors contributing to these high rates. Little is known about whether features of an individual's social network prior to treatment entry are related to number of days in treatment or to clinical status at treatment termination. To examine these relationships, we analyzed data from 241 women (58.5% Hispanic) entering an SUD residential treatment facility, who agreed to participate in a parent randomized control trial. We assessed characteristics of these women's social networks prior to treatment entry at baseline. We extracted clinician-determined progress at treatment termination and days in treatment two months after treatment entry from clinical records. Data-driven analyses using purposeful selection of predictors showed that the overall size of the social network was associated with increased likelihood of being classified as having achieved good clinical progress in treatment at termination and that number of drug users in the pretreatment social network was related to staying fewer days in treatment. Contrary to our hypothesis, we found no significant associations between other pretreatment social support network characteristics (i.e., social support) and treatment retention or clinical discharge status. Future research should examine how features of social networks change through treatment and how these changes relate to treatment outcomes.

31. Characteristics of Social Support Networks Among Young Men And Transgender Women of Color Receiving Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) For HIV Prevention

To characterize perceived social support for young men and transgender women who have sex with men (YM/TWSM) taking HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and identify persisting needs for support around PrEP uptake and adherence. HIV-negative YM/TWSM of color prescribed daily oral tenofovir-emtricitabine as PrEP for ≥ three months in Philadelphia participated in a mixed-methods study. Participants completed an egocentric sociogram survey to characterize their social support networks and identify whom they could turn to for support around PrEP use. We calculated the mean proportion of individual roles and perceived PrEP supportiveness among the networks and to identify the proportion of network members to whom the index participant disclosed their PrEP use. A subset of participants (n=30) completed individual, semi-structured interviews which further characterized the social support provided by the network members, and the rationale for identifying the PrEP-specific support figures. Interview transcripts were analyzed using an inductive open-coding approach. Participants (n=50) were 69% African-American, 24% multiracial and 12% Latino/a. Median age was 21.5 years (SD: 2.0), and 10% were transgender women. Biologic family were the most commonly cited support figures, with 75% of participants identifying ≥1 biologic family member in their support network (mean network proportion 0.37 [SD: 0.31]), followed by friends who were identified in 67% of networks (mean network proportion 0.38 [SD: 0.31]). Most individuals had disclosed their PrEP to a large proportion of their network (0.74 [SD: 0.31]), and network members were perceived to be highly supportive of the participant's PrEP use (0.87 [SD: 0.28]). Nearly all (98%) participants could identify ≥1 member they would turn to for support around PrEP. In contrast to the general support figures, these individuals were more often friends (48%) than family (36%). However, this difference was not statistically significant (p=0.22). In the interview data, the predominant forms of PrEP-related social support were concrete support such as reminders about pill taking or transportation to clinic/pharmacies; and emotional support which included encouragement to be healthy and demonstrations of love and affection. Key characteristics of PrEP-specific support figures included emotional closeness, trust, and homophily (alikeness) with respect to sexual orientation and PrEP use. Non-disclosure of PrEP use was perceived as a barrier to receiving PrEP-related support for some participants. Disclosure of PrEP use to network members was often indirect, such as posting one's PrEP status on mobile dating applications, or accidental, such as having their family members find their pills. Participants less commonly discussed PrEP disclosure in the context of direct conversations about safer sex negotiation or as a means to obtain healthcare-related support from network members. While most YM/TWSM identify PrEP-specific social support figures within their networks, our data suggest that interventions to increase PrEP adherence and persistence should include skill-building around communication, particularly with respect to disclosure of PrEP use.

Childhood adversity, social support networks and well-being among youth aging out of care: An exploratory study of mediation

The goals of the present study are to examine the relationship between childhood adversity and adult well-being among vulnerable young adults formerly placed in substitute care, and to investigate how characteristics of their social support networks mediate this association.A sample of 345 Israeli young adults (ages 18–25), who had aged out of foster or residential care, responded to standardized self-report questionnaires tapping their social support network characteristics (e.g., network size or adequacy) vis-à-vis several types of social support (emotional, practical, information and guidance), experiences of childhood adversity, and measures of well-being (psychological distress, loneliness, and life satisfaction).Structural equation modelling (SEM) provided support for the mediating role of social support in the relationship between early adversity and adult well-being. Although network size, frequency of contact with its members, satisfaction with support, and network adequacy, were all negatively related to early adversity, only network adequacy showed a major and consistent contribution to the various measures of well-being. While patterns were similar across the types of support, the effects of practical and guidance support were most substantial.The findings suggest that the detrimental long-term consequences of early adversity on adult well-being are related not only to impaired structural aspects of support (e.g., network size), but also to a decreased ability to recognize available support and mobilize it. Practical and guidance support, more than emotional support, seem to be of critical importance.

Structure of the Social Support Network of Patients with Severe and Persistent Psychiatric Disorders in Follow-Ups to Primary Health Care

The objective of this study is to analyze the characteristics of social support networks of patients with psychiatric disorders at follow-up to primary care. This is a cross-sectional qualitative research study. Forty-five interviews were held with patients and their supporters. The results showed small and dense networks, with a strong emphasis on the bonds with formal supporters and a scant network of informal supporters. It is recommended to develop strategies to improve social support networks and use this as an outcome indicator related to social integration of these patients and to the quality of services involved with outpatient healthcare.

Examination of spatial polygamy among young gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men in New York City: the P18 cohort study.

The few previous studies examining the influence of the neighborhood context on health and health behavior among young gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (YMSM) have predominantly focused on residential neighborhoods. No studies have examined multiple neighborhood contexts among YMSM or the relationships between sociodemographic characteristics, psychosocial factors, social support network characteristics, health behaviors, and neighborhood concordance. In this study, we assessed spatial polygamy by determining the amount of concordance between residential, social, and sex neighborhoods (defined as boroughs) in addition to examining individual-level characteristics that may be associated with neighborhood concordance. These data come from the baseline assessment of Project 18, a cohort of racially and ethnically diverse YMSM residing in the New York City metropolitan area. Participants (N = 598) provided information on their residential, social, and sex boroughs as well as information on their sociodemographic characteristics, psychosocial factors, social support network characteristics, and health behaviors (e.g., substance use and condomless sex). Descriptive analyses were conducted to examine the distribution of boroughs reported across all three contexts, i.e., residential, social, and sex boroughs. Next, concordance between: (1) residential and social boroughs; (2) residential and sex boroughs; (3) social and sex boroughs; and (4) residential, social, and sex boroughs was assessed. Finally, bivariable analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between sociodemographic characteristics, psychosocial factors, social support network characteristics, and health behaviors in relation to borough concordance. Approximately two-thirds of participants reported concordance between residential/socializing, residential/sex, and sex/socializing boroughs, whereas 25% reported concordance between all three residential/socializing/sex boroughs. Borough concordance varied by some individual-level characteristics. For example, White YMSM and YMSM reporting lower perceived socioeconomic status were significantly more likely to report residential/socializing/sex borough concordance (p < 0.001). With regard to psychosocial factors, YMSM who reported experiencing gay-related stigma in public forums were more likely to report discordant socializing/sex and residential/socializing/sex boroughs (p < 0.001). Greater frequency of communication with network members (≥weekly) was associated with less residential/social borough concordance (p < 0.05). YMSM who reported residential/socializing/sex borough concordance were more likely to report recent (last 30 days) alcohol use, recent marijuana use, and recently engaging in condomless oral sex (all p < 0.05). These findings suggest that spatial polygamy, or an individual moving across and experiencing multiple neighborhood contexts, is prevalent among urban YMSM and that spatial polygamy varies by multiple individual-level characteristics. Future research among YMSM populations should consider multiple neighborhood contexts in order to provide a more nuanced understanding of how and which neighborhood contexts influence the health and well-being of YMSM. This further examination of spatial polygamy (and individual-level characteristics associated with it) may increase understanding of the most appropriate locations for targeted disease prevention and health promotion interventions (e.g., HIV prevention interventions).

Associations Between Social Support Network Characteristics and Receipt of Emotional and Material Support Among a Sample of Male Sexual Minority Youths

Few studies have examined how social support network characteristics are related to perceived receipt of social support among male sexual minority youths. Using egocentric network data collected from a study of male sexual minority youths (N = 592), multivariable logistic regression analyses examined distinct associations between individual and social network characteristics with receipt of (1) emotional and (2) material support. In multivariable models, frequent communication and having friends in one's network yielded a twofold increase in the likelihood of receiving emotional support whereas frequent communication was associated with an almost threefold higher likelihood of perceived material support. Finally, greater internalized homophobia and personal experiences of gay-related stigma were inversely associated with perceived receipt of emotional and material support, respectively. Understanding the evolving social context and social interactions of this new generation of male sexual minority youths is warranted in order to understand the broader, contextual factors associated with their overall health and well-being.

Social Support Network Characteristics of Incarcerated Women with Co-Occurring Major Depressive and Substance Use Disorders

The nature of social support available to incarcerated women is not well-understood, particularly among women at high risk of negative outcomes, including women dually diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder and a Substance Use Disorder (MDD-SUD). Descriptive statistics and paired-tests were conducted on 60 incarcerated MDD-SUD women receiving in-prison substance use and depression treatments to characterize the women’s social networks, including the strength of support, network characteristics, and types of support provided as well as to determine what aspects of social support may be amenable to change during incarceration and post-release. Study results showed that, on average, women perceived they had moderately supportive individuals in their lives, although more than a quarter of the sample could not identify any regular supporters in their network at baseline. During incarceration, women’s social networks significantly increased in general supportiveness, and decreased in network size and percentage of substance users in their networks. Participants maintained positive social support gains post-release in most areas while also significantly increasing the size of their support network post-release. Findings suggest that there are aspects of incarcerated MDD-SUD women’s social networks that are amenable to change during incarceration and post-release and provide insight into treatment targets for this vulnerable population.

Examining the Interaction of Extroversion and Network Structure in the Formation of Effective Informal Support Networks

This study on informal support networks bridges the traditionally disparate disciplines of personality theory and social network theory, and examines the impact of extroversion on the structure of support networks, as well as the relative contribution of network structure versus extroversion to a critical element of network effectiveness: trust. Two uestionnaires measuring extroversion and social support network characteristics were administered to 113 university business students. Although no impact of extroversion was found on certain dimensions of network structure (e.g., size, diversity, behavioral aspects of strength of ties), introverts and extroverts differed in terms of affective aspects of strength of ties and embeddedness. Furthermore, although we failed to find a significant interaction effect of extroversion and embeddedness on trust, both extroversion and strength of ties predicted trust. In addition, extroverts’ networks were characterized by higher levels of intimacy and trust, which may

Social support network characteristics and sexual risk taking among a racially/ethnically diverse sample of young, urban men who have sex with men.

Associations between social support network characteristics and sexual risk among racially/ethnically diverse young men who have sex with men (YMSM) were examined using egocentric network data from a prospective cohort study of YMSM (n = 501) recruited in New York City. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses examined associations between social support network characteristics and sexual risk taking behaviors in Black, Hispanic/Latino, and White YMSM. Bivariate analyses indicated key differences in network size, composition, communication frequency and average relationship duration by race/ethnicity. In multivariable analyses, controlling for individual level sociodemographic, psychosocial and relationship factors, having a sexual partner in one's social support network was associated with unprotected sexual behavior for both Hispanic/Latino (AOR = 3.90) and White YMSM (AOR = 4.93). Further examination of key network characteristics across racial/ethnic groups are warranted in order to better understand the extant mechanisms for provision of HIV prevention programming to racially/ethnically diverse YMSM at risk for HIV.

Effects of limitation of number of alters and time frame in the Burt name generator

Social networks can be operationalized as potential and actual sources of social support. Comparing cross-sectional data sets from various points in time allows us to compare overall characteristics of social support networks and their changes over time in the population. However, the measurement instruments should be identical or at least very similar. The Burt name generator (1984) for assessing discussion networks of Slovenians was applied in the 1987 and 2002 surveys. Data were collected on representative samples of adult residents of Slovenia. Owing to the complexity of the personal network questionnaire, the number of alters was limited to 5 in the 1987 survey, whereas there was no upper limit in the 2002 survey. There was also a difference in question wording. In the paper these two surveys are compared with regard to network composition and structure. Special attention is given to the effects of limiting the number of alters, question wording and network size on statistical estimates of network composition and structure.

Characteristics of social support networks of low socioeconomic status African American, Anglo American, and Mexican American mothers of full‐term and preterm infants

This study examined the relation of ethnicity to two aspects of mothers' social support: structure (friends vs. family) and quality (satisfaction vs. aggravation) for mothers from low socioeconomic (SES) backgrounds in three ethnic groups—Anglo American (n = 53), African American (n = 50), and Mexican American (n = 42). Mothers of both preterm (n = 81) and full-term infants (n = 64) were included. Mothers from Mexican American backgrounds had fewer friends in their networks when compared with mothers in the African American and Anglo American groups. While there were no significant effects for ethnicity on support satisfaction, mothers overall reported more satisfaction with support received from friends rather than family. African American mothers reported significantly more aggravation in their support systems than the other two groups. This was not due to differences for these mothers in their SES or marital status, and are discussed in relation to community differences that appear to be present for this ethnic group. The clinical importance of considering ethnic backgrounds when serving mothers with young children are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Characteristics of social support networks of low socioeconomic status African American, Anglo American, and Mexican American mothers of full-term and preterm infants

Characteristics of social support networks of low socioeconomic status African American, Anglo American, and Mexican American mothers of full-term and preterm infants

Characteristics of social support networks of low socioeconomic status African American, Anglo American, and Mexican American mothers of full‐term and preterm infants

This study examined the relation of ethnicity to two aspects of mothers' social support: structure (friends vs. family) and quality (satisfaction vs. aggravation) for mothers from low socioeconomic (SES) backgrounds in three ethnic groups—Anglo American (n = 53), African American (n = 50), and Mexican American (n = 42). Mothers of both preterm (n = 81) and full-term infants (n = 64) were included. Mothers from Mexican American backgrounds had fewer friends in their networks when compared with mothers in the African American and Anglo American groups. While there were no significant effects for ethnicity on support satisfaction, mothers overall reported more satisfaction with support received from friends rather than family. African American mothers reported significantly more aggravation in their support systems than the other two groups. This was not due to differences for these mothers in their SES or marital status, and are discussed in relation to community differences that appear to be present for this ethnic group. The clinical importance of considering ethnic backgrounds when serving mothers with young children are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Effect of satisfaction with social support on blood pressure in normotensive and borderline hypertensive men and women.

The relation between blood pressure (BP) and two aspects of social support, perceived satisfaction and structural social support network characteristics, were examined in adults classified as having normal BP or borderline hypertension. Causal BPs were taken by a trained technician on 3 separate visits, each approximately 1 week apart. Participants were categorized as borderline hypertensive if screening systolic blood pressure (SBP) fell in the range 130-160 mmHG and/or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) fell in the range 85-100 mmHg; BPs below these ranges were considered normotensive. Participants underwent ambulatory BP monitoring. Individuals classified as normotensive reported significantly greater support satisfaction than individuals with borderline hypertension. Social network characteristics were not associated with BP. During 24 hr of ambulatory BP monitoring, high perceived support satisfaction was associated with lower SBP and DBP at work, home, and during sleep. These data suggest that perceived satisfaction with social support is associated with lower BP. The presence of social support also may reduce BP levels during daily life.

Platelet status, stress and social support in the elderly

Using data from a study of social support, stressful life events, and nutritional status among the elderly (n = 424), models based on earlier work by Kaplan were tested in order to determine the effects of adverse life events, lack of social support, and dysphoria on the platelet status of elderly women and men. Platelet status is a risk factor in coronary heart disease and has been shown in laboratory studies to be negatively affected by experimentally induced stressful circumstances. The present study takes into account naturally occurring life events as well as social support. It also takes into account additional factors known to affect platelet status such as age, health status, medication, and social class background. The findings suggest that the platelet status of elderly men and women is affected by differing adverse life experiences and differing kinds of social support and social support network characteristics.

Social Support and Depressive Symptoms among Blacks

Depressive symptoms among a sample of Black adults were investigated as a function of three structural characteristics of social support networks: (1) frequency of contact with network members, (2) durability of network relationships, and (3) reciprocity of network relationships. Overall, respondents had frequent contact with their network members, long-term network relationships, and little reciprocity in network relationships. None of these structural characteristics were significantly related to depressive symptoms. Several demographic factors, however, had an effect on depressive symptom scores and network characteristics. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Toward a multi-method approach to assessing the effects of social support.

Two studies were done to assess the direct and stress-buffering effects of social support on psychological symptoms of college students. Three conceptually distinct measures were used to assess different aspects of social support: receipt of supportive transactions, satisfaction with support received, and social support network characteristics. The results indicated a significant direct and stress-buffering effect for support satisfaction in reducing psychological symptomatology. Two measures of support network size were used: number of people who were both a source of supportive and of upsetting interactions (conflicted support network), and number of people who were only mentioned as a source of support (unconflicted support network). Conflicted network size was positively related to symptomatology and increased the relationship between stress and symptomatology. No direct or interaction effects were obtained for unconflicted network size in predicting symptomatology.

The use of social support in clinical practice.

ABSTRACT Several assumptions are presented that describe the underlying characteristics of social support networks and factors that influence the adequacy of the support that is available to individuals. Based on these assumptions, assessment of the adequacy of social support must address both person-specific and situation-specific factors. The special case of the chronically mentally ill population is developed and contrasted with other populations. Finally, a typology of deficiencies in social support is presented along with interventions that have proven useful for specific types of deficiencies. Stories of hermits hold a special fascination because the individual appears to transcend the need for human contact. Yet typically, the history of the recluse points to a bitter rejection or betrayal leading to exile or self-imposed isolation. Also, the individual often is portrayed as extremely narrow or restricted, as in the case of the legendary Silas Marner, known for 15 years among the villagers as a miser who did nothing but bend his back for endless hours every day over his loom. Even Silas Marner had social needs, which were reawakened by a personal crisis when his life-long savings were stolen. Of course George Elliot had an artist's license to give the story a happy ending through the vehicle of a small abandoned child who appeared in Silas' cottage one evening and became the catalyst for his transformation into a fully integrated member of the village society. But in real life isolated individuals often are caught in an unending spiral of circumstances that perpetuate their aloneness. People have differing needs for social interaction, and certainly there are life-long isolates who are happy, functioning individuals. However, as Bowlby (1973) has concluded, people of all ages are at their happiest and most effective when they are confident that there are trusted persons behind them who will come to their aid if difficulties arise. Some theorists in the social support field view supportive interactions in adulthood as analogous to attachment in infancy: just as the well-adjusted, attached infant is considered to have a secure base from which to explore, interact, and discover the world, Kahn and Antonucci (1980) propose that adults with strong, supportive relationships are able to cope better with the stresses of their environments. These theoretical arguments about the need for social interaction lead to the first of six assumptions that provide a framework for understnading social support. A look at the pages of current journals in the health professions and in the social sciences confirms that research interest in social support is exploding. As with other new ideas, this period of expansion is being followed by a period of criticism, resulting in a final period of retrenchment, wherein the core ideas are refined, and more exact, though perhaps limited relationships are specified. Just as it would be a mistake to ignore this important variable, it is equally dangerous to see social support as a panacea. Some of the current popularizations of this concept gloss over key distinctions and promise unwarranted outcomes. Ultimately this unbridled enthusiasm will lead to disillusionment as the outcomes fail to match the expectations. However, sound approaches to incorporating social support into clinical practice also are being developed. The purpose of this paper is to present key assumptions and research findings that can guide clinicians in thinking realistically about social support, both in assessing their clients and in planning interventions.