Social Roles Of Women Research Articles

Female Apostolates and Modernization in Mid-Nineteenth Century Chile

How religion became a tool for integrating women into the modernization process in mid-nineteenth century Chile is the subject of this essay. The intense liberal assault on tradition in nineteenth century Latin America resulted in cultural warfare that benefited women as the abandonment of the Church in record numbers by men created opportunities for both religious and lay women to assume leadership roles. Perhaps for the only time in its history, the Roman Catholic Church identified religious women as a specie of clergy and actively encouraged their female apostolates to preserve the faith of women and children. In Chile this tension between traditional Hispanic and competing bourgeois values had a female dimension because included among the indicators of modernity was the social role of woman. Traditional Hispanic culture cloistered woman in the convent or home; she was a private person who left the public sphere to her male relatives. Independence, however, introduced the idea of republican motherhood and the notion became more pronounced when travelers to the United States and Europe noted the freedom and social contributions of women thereby giving credence to the new concept. Female apostolates provided women with the bridge to the modern age and provided a “feminine ideal of self-sacrificing women [to balance] Adam Smith's masculine gospel of enlightened self-interest.”

Primal Urges and Civilized Sensibilities: The Rhetoric of Gendered Archetypes, Seduction, and Resistance in Bram Stoker's Dracula

If there hadn't been women, we'd still be squatting in a cave eating raw meat because we made civilization to impress our girlfriends,” claimed Orson Welles (qtd. in Gossett 20). This quotation is typical of a “gendered ideology,” which dichotomizes male and female natures by associating that which is civilized with the feminine, and that which is uncivilized with the masculine. That ideology underpins the belief that it is the social role of women to provide a calming effect on male aggression through setting and reinforcing boundaries concerning “appropriate” male behavior. This results in an expectation that a woman in an intimate heterosexual relationship should take on a kind of mothering role, limiting the threat posed by the man's essentially masculine nature.

Abortion as a Social Problem: The Construction of "Opposite" Solutions in Sweden and the United States

Analyzing abortion as a social problem in two national contexts, this paper extends the social constructionist approach to a historical comparative problem. The two abortion problems analyzed, one in the United States, 1840–1880, and the other in Sweden, 1910–1940, shared many significant elements, including medical lobbying, pronatalist and class-specific eugenic concerns, and uncertainty around women's changing social and economic roles. And yet, the effort to curb the number of abortions led to “opposite” policy solutions in these two nations, with the United States criminalizing a previously unregulated practice, and Sweden liberalizing a previously harsh law against abortion. These different policy solutions were grounded in the different understandings of abortion that the respective claimsmaking processes produced, including different perceptions of the women having abortions, why they were having them, and what could feasibly be done about it. I argue here that the different historical legacies of abortion, the ability of the state to adopt and enforce policies, and the larger cultural arena of public problems influenced the abortion problem's specific trajectory in each nation.

The New Asian Woman

Given the ubiquitous nature of the women's magazine in newsstands throughout the world, it is surprising how little we know about their contents and their role in non-western countries. Using examples from Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, the author argues for research that situates the mass-circulation women's magazine within the context of the rise of mass culture and clarifies its role as an arbitrator of women's image and social role. Research libraries' systematic exclusion of Southeast Asian women's magazines from their collections hampers research that might expand our understanding of women's lives in these countries. A cooperative approach to developing representative collections of women's magazines is advocated along with programs to study their history and contents.

The Stigma of Obesity in Women: The Difference is Black and White

This study examined whether there is subcultural variation in the stigma of obesity. Black and White women rated photographs of thin, average, and large Black and White women on a number of evaluative dimensions. The photographs depicted professional models dressed in fashionable clothing. Results showed that White women rated large women, especially large White women, lower on attractiveness, intelligence, job success, relationship success, happiness, and popularity than they did average or thin women. By contrast, Black women did not show the same denigration of large women, and this was especially true when they were rating large Black women. A number of possible explanations are offered for these results, such as the difference in Black and White women's social role models, weight salience, subcultural beliefs concerning obesity, and disidentification from mainstream values.

Attitudes and behaviour of women in Kosovo and Metohija relevant for the population policy

A need for extensive investigation of the phenomenon of births in Kosovo and Metohija arises from the fact that our knowledge is almost exclusively based on the population census data (the last census for the whole territory of the province was taken in 1981), vital statistics (reliable data are available for years up to 1989) and two representative surveys (conducted in 1970 and 1976). A more comprehensive insight into fertility and population reproduction is needed in order to formulate population policy measures for which there has been an abject need for some time already. In February 1998, a pilot survey was conducted on the sample of 116 women who had given birth in three different types of maternity wards in Kosovo and Metohija. Despite methodological limitations with regard to the size and manner of the sample selection, its composition was satisfactory in terms of basic social and demographic characteristics as shown by the comparison with vital statistics for 1989 and 1994. This paper discusses behaviour and attitudes expressed by women which are of relevance to the population policy. This should enable an assessment of the elements of receptiveness or its dynamics following application of measures that take into account the needs of women in terms of reproductive behaviour of a certain population. The analysis of the results points to both the dominant role and a process of transformation in the traditional reproductive behaviour and attitudes of women. In terms of value standards and desired situations, a higher level of modification and dissolution of traditional barriers may be observed. However, even in the domain of standards of social value, differences may be observed with regard to the degree of openness to change, which is much more intense in terms of general attitudes than in those closely affecting the lives of those surveyed. This naturally causes certain inconsistencies and the ambivalence in statements given by the women surveyed, which is very characteristic of transitional stage and also inevitably reflects contradictions in behaviour. However, numerous findings point to the formation of positive receptiveness, which is an essential element of the population climate needed for implementation of the family planning programs as well as for designing the population policy measures. On one hand, this would facilitate the satisfaction of current needs and, on the other, especially through further education, accelerate the process of their transformation in the domain of reproductive behaviour and the place of women in society. In other words, as shown by the level of development of needs of the women surveyed, implementation of the family planning program is most urgently required in order to speed up transformation of the economic and psychological cost of parenthood as a social role of women.

The Lynx in Time: Haudenosaunee Women's Traditions and History

Although the work of multiculturalism has begun in ethnohistory, I believe there is still a long way to go, especially once we turn to women's stories. I find that even those scholars who intellectually reject the confines of the Christian Eve story continue to be conditioned, however unconsciously, by its assessment of strong women as impediments to, not instruments of, progress. Nevertheless, reevaluations of women's social roles are undeniably underway, while oral history is acquiring greater status. Thus the timing seems propitious for revisiting one of the most powerful, if one of the most neglected, stories of Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) history, that of the Jigonsaseh, or Head Clan Mothers of the League. In the pages that follow, I will examine some of the better-hidden skews that currently confuse the collections and, I hope, will offer another approach to Haudenosaunee history, one that will allow for a mixed oral-written reconstruction. My demonstration centers on the Jigonsaseh or, as I call her for reasons that will later become obvious, the Lynx in Time. In the process, I am careful to relate only stories already recorded in western sources out of sympathy for the position that no other sacred stories ought to be divulged beyond those that have been revealed to date.

Hypothesis: Menopause discourages infanticide and encourages continued investment by Agnates

Williams (1957) hypothesized that menopause evolved because early cessation of child-bearing might increase a Pleistocene woman's chance of surviving to care for her already born children and grandchildren. Others have elaborated on this hypothesis by suggesting that menopause might also change a woman's social role in a manner that benefits even more distant members of her kin group (e.g., Alexander 1974). However, empirical and model tests cast doubt on whether these considerations, alone, can account for the evolution and maintenance of menopause (Hill and Hurtado 1991; Rogers 1993). I suggest that menopause may also have benefited women by reducing infanticide and by helping to maintain agnatic investment in children. This hypothesis makes two assumptions. Both are at least moderately plausible given the available data: (1) compared to protohominids (which may have had rather chimpanzee-like mating systems), hominid mating relationships became relatively stable and involved increasing levels of paternal care (e.g., Alexander and Noonan 1979), and (2) the male in these relationships was generally older than the female(s) and thus was likely to be the first to die. Under these conditions, a female who remains fertile after the death of her primary mating partner invites the presence of a new male, which in turn threatens the existence of extant offspring (especially the youngest) and also threatens to disrupt any nepotistic relationship that may have existed with the primary mate's family. These additional costs of continued fertility, if considered in conjunction with the benefits traditionally thought to accrue from the early cessation of fertility (e.g., Williams 1957; Alexander 1974), may be sufficient to account for the evolution and maintenance of menopause.

Relationship of Social Roles and Nutrition Beliefs to Fat Avoidance Practices: Investigation of a US Model Among Danish Women

Objective This study was designed to investigate the associations among women's social roles, their nutrition beliefs, and their dietary fat avoidance practices. Role theory and prior qualitative research among US women provided the theoretical framework. Design/subjects A random-sample mail survey (76% response) was used to gather information on the usual pattern of dietary fat use, nutrition beliefs, and social positions of Danish women aged 30 to 60 years. A fat avoidance score was calculated for each respondent on the basis of 12 fat consumption practices. Sequential multiple linear regression was used to develop an explanatory model for fat avoidance using responses from 594 women. Results Interactions between nutrition attitudes and beliefs and social roles suggested that the roles themselves did not influence fat avoidance practices, but the nutrition beliefs associated with particular roles did have an influence. Among employed women, fat avoidance was lower among those who perceived many barriers to healthful eating. Among women who were not employed, fat avoidance was lower among those who perceived little social support for healthful eating. The association of fat avoidance with caretaking responsibility varied by age group. Caretaking was positively associated with fat avoidance among women in their forties, but not in older or younger age groups. Conclusions Nutrition messages should be tailored to fit women's unique social roles and the beliefs associated with them. Nutrition professionals in Denmark and the United States can adapt these findings to their own cultural context. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996; 96:580-584.

Latino Gender Differences in Public Opinion: Results from the Latino National Political Survey

The objective of this article is to determine whether there exists a Latino gender gap in public opinion. The issue areas selected for this study represent areas likely to reveal a gender gap if the phenomenon is present among Latinos in a manner similar to the general public. The areas studied include (a) support for decreased spending on military spending, (b) support for increased social welfare spending, and (c) attitudes toward women 's political and social roles. Some evidence for a Latino gender gap is found, and it runs in a similar direction on some social welfare issues and for women's social and political roles but is not consistent with the literature on violence and force issues. The results presented here are preliminary, however, and much research remains to be done on gender differences in other public opinion issues, as well as political activities and political orientation.

Población y desarrollo

Analysis of the different theories which explain the two-way relationship between population growth and economic development. The paper therefore reviews the positions of Malthus, Simon, Julian, the Club of Rome and the theories of demographic regulation and transition to further the understanding of the political, economic and social factors which influence the adoption of a particular population policy. Finally, the AA. propose the re-definition of woman's social role, on the basis of a philosophical exposition of their role and duty, that will lead to the questioning of the current asymmetry between the sexes and woman's role in the family, as an important part of the redefinition of population policy, which necessarily implies the exercise of greater democracy and joint responsibility in the basic unit of the social fabric : the family

Future Time Perspective according to women's age and social role during adulthood

The purpose of the present research was to describe the kind of transformation Future Time Perspective (FTP) undergoes during adulthood and to investigate the differences that may occur in the extension and the content of goals of women according to their age groups and social roles (homemakers, students, and careerwomen). With a sentence completion technique, 622 Caucasian French-Canadian women (20 to 64 years of age) expressed their aspirations. These goals were classified into specific categories according to their temporal extension and their motivational content. Results indicate that the extension and the content of FTP undergo numerous changes during adulthood, revealing different goal profiles according to women's age and social role. Results are discussed in relation with current research.

Women in the city of man: recent contributions to the gender and human settlements debate.

This article reviews recent publications that add to the debate about gender and human settlements. Urban development is ultimately shaped by gender assumptions and by the way in which each sex experiences the urban environment; gender-blind urban planning can be overcome by reaching a greater understanding of women's economic and social roles (and the limitations imposed on them) in urban society. Most of the recent publications on women and human settlements have been produced for international conferences that have helped to mainstream gender issues and incorporate them into urban policy and practice. "Women in the City" is the report of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's 1994 conference. Concerns raised in this report about the adverse effects a poorly designed living environment has on women, especially elderly women, are echoed in the proceedings of a 1992 international conference held at the University of Michigan, which considered issues of shelter policy, law, shelter and women in crisis, women's participation in the production of shelter, shelter and income opportunities, women and shelter-related services and infrastructure, nontraditional living arrangements, design, and the needs of elderly women. A 1994 publication edited by Meer contains a series of papers that analyze how women respond to urban poverty. Other recent publications focus on: 1) how women's work changes in response to economic development and urbanization, 2) survival strategies, 3) urban microenterprises, 4) gender analysis of land use and town planning, and 5) research and policy priorities that emerged from a 1994 conference held in Nairobi. In order to achieve social justice, gender issues must be analyzed along with issues such as age, ethnicity, and class.

The Lord of Hadaly's Rings: Regulating the Female Body in Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's "L'Eve future"

Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's negative position regarding progressand particularly its utilitarian application in the machine-turns on a deeply felt disdain for materialism, reason, and good sense. When his principal character, a famous scientist/engineer, creates a female android, it is because ce qui interesse l'auteur de L 'Eve future, c'est moins le progres scientifique et technique en soi, que perspectives qu'il ouvre a l'imagination.' In this way, science and engineering function as the metaphysical intermediaries between the real and the ideal, permitting the technical expert to pierce les voiles dont s'enveloppe le monde sensible, and reveal les puissances cachees dans l'infini.2 Here, through science's ability to probe and grasp nature's mysteries, Villiers's original resistance to its practical applications is defeated by science's greater epistemological promises. And yet the metaphor of penetrating or even of removing nature's veils points to the gender specificity of the quest for transcendence acquired through science and technology;' the imaginative processes involved in the decision to fabricate an artificial being revolve on its identity as a woman. It is at this moment that L 'Eve future (1886) joins other literary works from the nineteenth century that dramatize the effort to physically reproduce, if not an entire woman, then fragments of women.4 The proliferation of artificial women in these novels firmly situates the central debate ofL 'Eve future within a particular socio-historical configuration of woman disseminated during the last half of the nineteenth century. In that configuration, an active redefinition of woman's social role often gets entangled with the advent of a middle-class and industrial economy.' An imaginative link established between women and the rise of the bourgeoisie creates problems for the decadent claim that the sole beauty of science lies in its fantastic access to the supernatural realms that constitute natural and human reality. L 'Eve future presents a flawed female, a Bourgeois Goddess whose physical perfection is betrayed by her mental allegiance to that same good sense which represents progress, technology, and middle-class sensibilities. Literature, art, and philosophy, however, will transfer the mediocrity of modem times-initially revealed in the utilitarian machine---onto the female body, notably that of la bourgeoise.

The Women of the ABCFM Oregon Mission and the Conflicted Language of Calvinism

Among the books Oregon missionaries Elkanah and Mary Walker kept in their mission home at Tshimakain was a Bible in which was written a quotation attributed to Martin Luther: “Men are never more unfit for the sacrament, than when they think themselves most fit—and never more fit and prepared for duty than when most humbld ‘sic’ and ashamed in a sense of their own unfitness.” Fitness founded in unfitness, ability based on inability, and autonomy grounded in dependence were qualities that the Walker' sponsor, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), encouraged in its emissaries. The country's first foreign missionary program was established in 1810 by a small group of New Divinity ministers. Dominating the rural pulpits in New England and New York during the Second Great Awakening, New Divinity preachers aimed to legitimate their conception of revival and conversion by appealing to the earlier revival theology of Jonathan Edwards. In the process, they insisted that predestination and free grace did not violate human free will and moral responsibility. Based on these convictions antebellum ABCFM missionaries, including the Oregon group, learned to assess their own spiritual condition and calling. However, the internal conflicts prompted by New Divinity understandings of the conversion experience alternatively produced debilitating and vitalizing effects that continued to trouble these women and men throughout their missionary careers. In effect, the vocation of the missionaries of the Whitman-Spalding mission proceeded from an uncommonly heroic effort to achieve a salvation that could not be guaranteed by their own theology. Moreover, contemporary clashing views regarding the nature and social role of women became intertwined with this disabling discourse. This, in turn, limited the Oregon women's conception of themselves and their capacities as missionaries.

Child Beauty, Child Rights and the Devaluation of Women

In the US existing initiatives to improve birth outcomes have been confined to fetal and infant concerns neglecting womens health. In most such programs women are not eligible for services until the moment of conception and are jettisoned from the program the moment they deliver or soon thereafter. Not only does this tight focus on fetal and infant concerns devalue womens interests but it may also prove of limited effectiveness in improving birth and infant outcomes. There is evidence indicating that a series of chronic conditions before pregnancy are important determinants of pregnancy complications and prematurity. Consequently focused prenatal care programs will have to be transformed to become a component of womens health care over a lifetime. Continued ambivalence over the social role of women and tortured political discourse over the direction of public policy in the US demand that the needs and rights of children be reframed to advance the needs and rights of women. Such a major revision will require the courage to confront deep often self- serving disciplinary isolation as well as the collective commitment to rebuild a coherent progressive agenda.

Beauty and Breast Implantation: How Candidate Selection Affects Autonomy and Informed Consent

Candidate evaluation for breast implantation presents a more important obstacle to the fulfillment of the normative requirements of informed consent than do the social roles of women or cultural norms governing female beauty. I argue that women's decisions to receive breast implants may indeed be informed, competently made, and substantially voluntary, but that the cultural construction of beauty may undermine women's autonomy by influencing the evaluation of surgical candidates and risk disclosure during informed consent.

Women's Employment Issues in Contemporary Iran: Problems and Prospects in the 1990s

Patterns of Women's Employment in Iran have been Influenced BY the oil-based nature of the economy; by the policy of import-substitution industrialization which has favored capital-intensive, male-intensive industries; by cultural attitudes and gender bias which render many occupations inappropriate or off-limits to women; by women's low level of literacy, educational attainment, and skills relative to men; and by high rates of fertility. These factors have affected, and indeed limited, the supply of and demand for female labor, especially in the 1980s.The results of the 1986 census, which came to light in 1988, seem to have prompted a number of significant policy shifts on the part of the government of President Rafsanjani and sparked debates, studies, and research projects concerning population issues, women's economic and social roles, and development strategies.

Women as Mothers, Wives and Workers

During much of the 18th and 19th centuries, women's choices about family roles, marriage, childbearing and childrearing were largely determined by the social and material conditions of the time. While this is still true during the 20th century, widespread shifts brought about by technology, industrialization, and legal changes have created a context for tremendous change in women's social and family roles. This article exmaines the cultural and historical contexts of women's roles in families during the early part of the 20th century, and considers the implications of those contexts and the changes in them for family therapy.

Kemalism and Turkish women

The Kemalist regime that replaced the Ottoman rule in Turkey is often praised for promoting gender equality and emancipation of women. Although the republican governments' policies led to considerable progress in certain areas, they fell short of achieving gender equality. The limited nature of the progress has usually been explained either by the strength of Islamic tradition which curtailed the goals of Kemalism, or by the cautious strategy of the Kemalists who pursued a gradual course of change to avoid further alienation of the tradition groups. This paper argues that Kemalism was limited in it intentions in regard to the change in women's social role and gender relations and sought progress only to the level that had prevailed in the West where the female was still the second sex. Thus, Kemalism intended to equip the Turkish women with education and finer skills, only to improve their contribution to the Republican patriarchy as better wives and mothers. A three level content analysis, based on the...